1
20
7
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/6e2fbd7809ad6c738bf097b4a431abfc.pdf
c128a9432e791b64cef3cab5503eb22d
PDF Text
Text
J o \y ,
THE
BACKGROUND
OF
I 'K l
INTEGRATION
The important events which have happened since the Supreme Court
decision of 1954 are fam iliar to most people in te reste d . The decision, how
ever, was the culmination of years of struggle and debate, extending over
nearly two centuries. I t may be another two centuries before the problem
of race relatio n s ceases to be a major factor in our so cial l i f e . In the
heat of controversy, facts favorable to our way of thinking become exagger
ated a l l out of proportion to th e ir significance, whereas unfavorable facts
are ignored or forgotten.
I t is proposed here to give a very b rie f review of these facts from
an im partial point of view. Some of my readers w ill doubtless claim th a t '
ce rtain incidents narrated are not tru e . I t is e a sily possible th a t these
readers are rig h t and th a t I am wrong. Ho one is p erfect. On the other
hand, i t may be th a t the objection is due to the fac t th a t the incident or
reflec tio n narrated is unfavorable to the point of view of the reader. His
conscience must be his guide.
There is so much to be said on both sides of th is controversy th a t
a strong case could be worked out e ith e r for segregation or integration
so lely on the data presented in th is paper, provided th a t the unfavorable
fac ts are ignored.
�CHAPTER I
SLAVER? A D THE BEGI'FI'IG O 00R NATION
N
F
Quoting from the DECLARATION O INDEPENDENCE we read:
F
"W hold these truths to be self-evident: th a t a l l men
e
are created equal, th a t they are endowed by th e ir
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, th a t among
these are L ife, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness,-"
Upon reading th is paragraph we immediately wonder how our forefathers could
have tolerated slavery for a single day.
Perhaps we have forgotten th a t slavery had been an honored and re
spected social in s titu tio n fo r many cen tu ries. Over 14.00 years before the
b irth of C hrist, Joshua made slaves of the Gibeonites (Joshua: 9:27):
"And Joshua made them th a t day hewers of wood and drawers
of water fo r the congregation, and fo r the a l ta r of the
Lord, even unto th is day, in the place which he should
choose."
As the Is ra e lite s became more and more se ttle d in the land of Canaan they
enslaved the original inhabitants (I Xing: 9, Vs 20-21) u n til, i t is be
lieved, "every well-appointed estate (like th a t of Boaz, fo r example,
(Ruth: 2)) had numerous male and female slaves by whom the greater portion
of the harder work was done." (1)
Nor do we find any radical change in New Testament times. The
Apostle Paul advised a run-away slave to return to his master, although i t
is true he admonished the master to receive him as a b ro th er. (Philemon: 1)
After the time of Constantine, when the Church became wealthy and
dominant, i t began to employ slaves. A bishop of Verona remarked:
"God has m ercifully destined those to slavery for whom He
saw th a t freedom was not f ittin g ."
Pope Gregory presented slaves to a convent. He helped recover a fu g itiv e
slave for his brother. At one time the Abbey of Tours possessed 20,000
s e rf s . (2)
Thus C h ristian ity tended to modify the lo t of the
were taken fo r centuries to do away with the in s titu tio n
was rath er the gradual changes in society which elevated
sta tu s of serfs and fin a lly to free men, but slavery, in
s t i l l persisted.
slave but no steps
of slavery. I t
the slaves to the
diminished extent,
The African slave trade sta rte d about 144-2, when the Portuguese,
under Prince Henry the Navigator, while exploring the coast of Africa,
-
2-
�brought home ten (10) slaves. In 1502, Hegro slaves were imported in to the
island of H a iti. In the year 1/.%, Columbus took 500 Indian slaves to
Europe. In 1620, a Dutch ship sold slaves to the people of Janestown,
V irginia. The English shipping in te re sts soon took over and g reatly ex
panded the trade, u n til by the year 1700, the slaves brought to the English
Colonies averaged perhaps 15,000 persons per year. (3)
Thus, i t may be said th a t when the Declaration of Independence was
w ritten slavery had been practiced in many countries of the world fo r untold
centuries — th a t the C hristian Bible raises no objection to i t — th a t i t
was apparently approved by the C hristian peoples of the world. He are forced
then to reverse our question: "How could the signers of the Declaration of
Indenendence to le ra te slavery a f te r they proclaimed 'th a t a l l men are created
e q u a l'7"
He must now ask: "How could anyone express such a revolutionary notion
when slavery was so time-honored, so prevalent, and so respected an in s titu
tio n a l l over the world?" There appears to be a number of answers to th is
question. Taken separately, they are not convincing, but taken together
they a t le a s t shed lig h t on the problem.
1. I t is quite customary in s ta te papers and general pronouncements
to deal in ideas and ideals toward which people are moving. The liv e s of the
people of the community or country represented are apt to be decades or even
centuries behind those ideals in performance.
2, The thousands of people who read those b eau tifu l words in the "De
claration" ta c tic ly assumed th a t they referred to "citizens" and not "slaves".
This statement w ill be more convincing i f one refers to the "C onstitution",
I t was w ritten some ten years la te r than the Declaration of Independence, but
signed by a few of the same men.
A rticle IV, p art of Section 2, reads:
"Ho person held to Service or Labour in one S ta te , under the Laws
thereof, escaping in to another, sh a ll in Consequence of any Law or
Regulation th erein , be discharged from such Service or Labour, but
sh a ll be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service
or Labour may be due."
This is the way the Constitution was w ritten and th is is the way I t stands
today.
In the early h istory of the Jamestown colony, wives were sold to the
colonists fo r 120 lbs of tobacco. Later the price of wives became higher.
Perhaps the consent of the woman was required in each case, but the fac t
serves to illu s tr a te the a ttitu d e of the people of th a t period toward buying
flesh and blood, (A)
I t was stated above th a t slavery was accepted as moral the world over
b u t, of course, there were bound to be exceptions.
-3'
�1. Plato (400 B.C.) disapproved of slavery but la te r philosophers
appeared not to be much interested one way or the other. Crysostom, advisor
to the Roman Emperor Trajan, pronounced the principle of slavery to be con
tr a ry to the law of nature. (3)
2. At the beginning our era, the Essenes repudiated slavery a lto
gether. (5)
But these pronouncements against slavery were followed by no general
e ffo rts to abolish the slave trade u n til about the time of the American
Revolution, and strangely enough, in England - the very country benefiting
most by the trad e . In fa c t, the revulsion against the slave trade was p art
and parcel of the same social and p o litic a l ferment which caused the rebellion
of the American Colonies.
When Lord Castlereagh was sent to Vienna in 1815 to represent England
in the tre a tie s there with the various European powers, he trie d to arrange
for the abolition of the slave trade. The other diplomats thought he must
have some u lte rio r motive. Perhaps the English colonies had plenty of
slaves whereas the other colonies lacked them. As a matter of fa c t, i t was
public opinion which forced his hand. He says th a t almost every v illag e and
town in England demanded th a t he use his influence in th a t d irec tio n . As a
r e s u lt of his labors, the nations present condemned the slave trade in general,
but only France and Spain agreed to abolish i t . (6)
The slave trade was abolished f i r s t by Denmark. The English followed
in 1807, the Swedes in 1813, the Dutch in 1814, France in ISIS and Spain in
1820. (3) As England had command of the sea, i t remained fo r her to enforce
the prohibition. I f i t had not been fo r the B ritish navy the pronouncements
against the trade by the various nations would have meant l i t t i e or nothing.
For years, the B ritish fought almost alone to drive the slave trade off the
high seas, but i t continued to p e rsis t overland.
As la te as 1885, before King Leopold I I took over the Belgian Congo,
the slave trade depleted the population some 100,000 human beings per year.
(6a)
Among the European nations the abo litio n of slavery in the colonies
was also undertaken f i r s t by England. A gitation against slavery began in
1823, but the colonial planters were powerful enough to s t a l l off a mandito ry anti-slav ery b i l l fo r ten years. F inally, in 1333, the home government
forced the colonies to agree to free a l l children of slaves under six years
old, to employ the adult slaves only three-fourths of th e ir working time fo r
fiv e to seven years, a f te r which they would be fre e . In the meantime, the
planters must supply the slaves with food and clothing. The slaves were to
be educated and a sum of 20, 000,000 pounds ste rlin g was raised to pay the
p la n ters. The colonies of Antigua and Bermuda freed the slaves immediately
ra th e r than provide the five to seven years tra n sitio n period.
France freed her colonies’ slaves in 1348, the Dutch in I 863, and
Portugal in 1373. Mexico freed her slaves e a r lie s t of a l l - September 15th,
1329 (3)s Equador and Venezula in 1354. (6b)
-4-
�On th is side of the water, anti-slavery began by a few of the most
forward-looking men indulging in high-sounding platitu d es and so we read in
our Declaration of In d e p e n d e n c e " T h a t a l l men are created equal, th a t they
are endowed by th e ir Creator with certain unalienable rig h ts, th a t among
these are L ife, Liberty and the pursuit of H appiness..."
I t took years before the manifest absurdity of a clause lik e th is be
came apparent, standing as the motto of a nation conceived in slavery, but
the d if fic u ltie s of the situ atio n began to a rise only 12 years a f te r the
words were w ritten.
V irginia, in p articu la r, wanted to abolish the slave trad e. South
Carolina immediately issued an ultimatum th a t under no circumstances would
she join the Union i f any such law was passed. The r e s t of the southern
sta te s sympathized with or activ ely supported South Carolina. Hew England,
especially Connecticut, greatly favored the Southern a ttitu d e . The slave
trade brought her shipping in te re sts prosperity, ju s t as the slaves them
selves brought riches to South Carolina. The middle A tlantic S tates were in
d iffe re n t, and George Mason, representing V irginia, had few supporters in
the Constitutional Convention. He spoke of "th is nefarious tr a f f ic " , of the
b ru talizin g effec t th a t slavery had on the slave holder. He fin a lly succeeded
in obtaining a compromise by which the slave trade could be abolished on or
a f te r ISOS, As a m atter of fa c t, slave ships smuggled th e ir cargoes in to
the States a f te r 1850.
Although George Mason was accused of having u lte r io r motives in his
an ti-slav ery speeches, he ce rtain ly placed his native S tate on a higher
plane than any other S tate of the Union in th is regard. W must never fo r
e
get th a t George Washington, George Mason, Robert E. Lee, James Madison, and
Patrick Henry, a l l illu s trio u s V irginians, were opponents of slavery. The
f i r s t three freed th e ir slaves.
Thomas Jefferson, another famous Virginian, said in regard to slavery:
" I tremble fo r my country when I r e f le c t th a t God is ju s t."
In 1773, P atrick Henry, when he became Governor of V irginia, promoted
a law forbidding the importation of slaves "by sea or land". Thus, Virginia
was th ir ty years ahead of the United S tates in th is regard.
When presented with a book on an ti-slav ery he rep lied , "Every thinking
honest man re je c ts i t (slavery) in speculation, how few in practice? Would
anyone believe th a t I am Master of slaves of my own purchase? I am drawn
along by the general inconvenience of liv in g without them. I w ill not, I
cannot ju s tify i t . . . " His s is te r lib erated her slaves. She said, " I t is
the clea re st conviction of my conscience, aided by the power of a good and
ju s t God, th a t i t is both sin fu l and unjust, as they are by nature equally
fre e as myself, to continue them in slavery."
Edmund Randolph of Virginia said he would "sooner risk the co n stitu tio n
than agree to such guarantee" (th at slavery should be perpetuated in the
United S ta te s ).
-5-
�Lafayette trie d to in te re st Washington in a freedom colony for Negroes
in the West Indies. He wrote from France, "I would never have drawn my
sword in the cause of America, i f I could have conceived th a t thereby I was
founding a land of sla v e ry ..." (6c)
But these great men of conscience and vision were no match for the
carnally minded m ajority. The Constitution of the United States was w ritten
to permit slavery forever. Yet, not once in the whole document was slavery
mentioned. I t d id n 't sound good. James Madison said:"They did not choose to
admit the rig h t of property in man," For example, A rticle I , Section I I 3
of the Constitution reads:
"Representatives and d irec t taxes sh all be apportioned among the
several sta te s which may be included within th is Union, according
to th e ir respective numbers, which sh a ll be determined by adding
to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
Service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
three f ifth s of a l l other persons.........."
Of course, " a ll other persons" referred to slaves.
The slavery issue was not the only one which bid f a ir to wreck the
formation of the Union. The big sta te s in sisted th a t representation in Con
gress be based on population, whereas the small sta te s refused to join the
Union unless a l l sta te s had the same number of representatives.
The issue was compromised try providing for two houses. In the Senate,
the sta te s were to have the same voting power whereas, in the House of
Representatives, population counted. And so, a f te r weeks of controversy,
bordering time and again on fa ilu re , the Constitution became operative in
June, 17§S.
P o litic a lly , the slavery question appeared se ttle d fo r an in d efin ite
period, but the conscience of the Nation was not s a tis f ie d . Anti-slavery
so c ieties sprang up both fo rth and South, but especially in the South. In
the North, however, they flourished.
I t is necessary a t th is point to distinguish between the terms "a n tislavery'' and "a b o litio n ist" . Those who were classed under the heading "an ti
slavery" believed th a t slavery was an unmitigated e v il but they also held
th a t i t was too dangerous and expensive to abolish i t a t once. Their e ffo rts
were confined to preventing it s spread, with the hope th a t i t would gradually
die out.
The "a b o litio n ist" , as the name implies, would abolish slavery by
law, purchase, or by violent means. At f i r s t they were very few in number
and, when recognized, were hunted down lik e mad dogs, both fo rth and South.
Slaves were found in New England as early as 1633, but a century and
a h a lf la te r the in s titu tio n was outlawed. The S tate Constitution for
Vermont, when she seceded from Hew York in 1731, l e f t no place fo r slavery.
-
6-
�Massachusetts and Pennyslvania abolished slavery in 1730.
1783, Connecticut and Rhode Island in 1784. (7)
Hew Hampshire in
But, although the Yankees barred slavery from New England, they con
tinued th e ir lu crativ e slave trade from Africa to the Southern S tate s, where
slavery was considered the very basis of th e ir great prosperity. Here, a n ti
slavery societies were hunted down and punished.
-7 -
�CHAPTER 2
AM
ERICAN SLAVERY
and the Slave Trade
The f i r s t American Slaver - "The Desire" - sailed from Marblehead,
Massachusetts in 1637. Later ships were specially designed as Slavers and
b u ilt along the Hew England coast. One b u ilt a t B risto l, Rhode Island, had
3 fe e t, 10 inches between decks. When she was navigating the tro p ics, the
heat in the hold was so te rrib le th a t the crew could hardly endure i t even
fo r a short tim e. One observer.stated th a t the deck of a Slaver was so
coated with blood and mucous th a t i t resembled a slaughter house. Often the
stench of the ship could be scented fo r miles. (3a)
To get some idea of what th is slave trade was lik e , reference may be
made to a book e n title d "The Adventures of an African Slaver" being the li f e
of Theodore Canot. He claims to have gone to sea as a cabin boy in 1319
and to have attained some years la te r to the captaincy of more than one
vessel engaged in the slave trade. His description of conditions on board
a Slaver is said to be much too humane to be tru e . Of course, he may have
been among the b e tte r captains. However th a t is , his book is in terestin g
and probably re fle c ts actual conditions even though they may be somewhat
white-washed.
He te lls of a caravan coming down from the in te rio r of Africa with
hides, ivory, gold, ric e , sheep, goats, beeswax, and 4-0 slaves fo r sale by
the son of a Hegro ch ieftain . The ivory was bought for $1 per lb ., the gold
fo r ()16 an ounce, and the slaves a t (>18 or 020 per head. Of course money
was, as a ru le, not given but instead the equivalent in tobacco, gun powder,
cotton cloth and muskets. (3) The Hegro chieftains obtained slaves by war
on neighboring trib e s and as punishment to members of th e ir own trib e s .
Another way was to se t f ir e to a native v illage and then catch the v illag e rs
as they ran out in confusion.
Canot describes the loading and transportation of slaves. (9) For
example, the Schooner Fortuna - 90 tons arrived off the African coast March
15th, 1329, with 200,000 cigars and 500 ounces of Mexican gold to be sold to
the local slave facto ries or barracoons in exchange for slaves. Two hundred
and twenty were purchased and transported to the Fortuna in canoes.
Upon coming on deck, men, women and children were a l l stripped of
clothing and were kept naked during the voyage for san itary reasons. The
men were housed in the hold, the women in the cabin and the boys and g irls
on deck. At night the children were covered by s a il cloth during f a ir
weather and#when i t rained, tarpaulins were furnished. At meal time the
Hegro men were divided into squads of 10 and were ordered when to "dip" and
when to "swallow" so as to keep the stronger ones from g etting more food
than the weaker. Those who refused to e a t were e ith e r placed in the sick bay
or, i f i t was thought they were trying to starve themselves, they were given
the "cat". At n ig h tfa ll, the mate and boatswain descended in to the hold x<rith
whip in hand and arranged the slaves so th a t each lay h is head in the o th e r's
la p . To keep the men from scratching each other and thus causing infected
-3-
�wounds, th e ir fingernails and toena5.1s were a l l carefu lly pared before they
were allowed to go below. S tr ic t silence was obtained a l l night by selected
ITegroes over each squad of ten who were provided with whips. The men sle p t
on the bare flo o rs. This was considered no hardship because in th e ir native
v illag e s they sle p t on the ground with no padding. The ship was kept
scrupulously clean to avoid disease. In f a ir weather a l l were allowed
exercise on deck and often the men and women were encouraged to sing th e ir
native songs together.
Their destination was Cuba. 4 lonely and little-know n harbor was
selected for debarkation, as the slave trade had become ille g a l by 1827.
To the great joy of the slaves they were a l l given clothing a f te r they
landed and then instructed in th e ir own language. Each sentence was
punctuated by the crack of a whip.
The expenses of the vqyage to and from West Africa were:
Cost of schooner f ittin g s , s a ils , e tc .
S ala ries, bonuses, e t c ., to officers
Wages to crew of 18 men
Food, e tc . during voyage
Cost of schooner and expenses of voyage
Clothing supplied to slaves in Havana
Commissions, fees, bribes (?) paid in Havana
Commission to Theodore Canot
(f’erhaps th is item should have been included
in p ro fits but he makes i t an expense item)
5 62C0
4898
2372
2302
916272
434
6309
5565
'529030
Incomes was:
Sale of 217 slaves (average >357 per person)
Sale price of schooner
Deduct cost of cigars and doubloons given in
exchange fo r slaves
Gross P ro fit
77469
3950
581419
10900
370519
29030
Expenses of voyage
541439
Net P ro fit
4.14.39
P ro fit on investment ---- --------- -—
= 104(5
29030
10900
From Cuba they were generally smuggled into the United S tates and
sold to the p lan ters.
-
9-
�Our next glimpse into th e ir liv in g conditions w ill be made some years
a f te r they became acclimated to the conditions on the plantations, learned
the English language and th e ir duties and privileges in the land of th e ir
c a p tiv ity . The following descriptions apply more to the descendants than
to the slaves f i r s t imported because the time in te rv al covered was from 1800
to 1860 when a large number of the original slaves must have died.
Reference is made to a very in te restin g collection of le tte r s and
w ritings of th is period e n title d "The Plantation South" by Katharine M.
Jones (1957). Some 50 authors are quoted, of southern, northern and foreign
backgrounds. After a careful reading of these le tte r s , an attempt was made
to determine how the slaves were trea ted by th e ir m asters. I t was soon
found, however, th a t the descriptions differed so much th a t few generaliza
tions could be made. After a l l , i f one went about appraising our modern
factory system one would find instances of happy, healthy employees, ade
quately paid, and in other cases, poor people working in unhealthy sweat
shops, longing to escape from th e ir employer but fearing starvation i f they
d id. So with slavery in the south apparently there iras great difference
between slaves in the home and those employed in the f ie ld . (11). The home
servants were often loved by the household. Colored "mamrays" often had a l
most sole care of the white children who, when they grew up, came to regard
th e ir nurses almost as th e ir mothers. (12). Sometimes they were pampered
lik e a house dog or ca t. Occasionally they were whipped, but i t broke the
hearts of the family to have to do i t . (13) The f ie ld slaves, especially on
large plantations, were ruled by overseers and seldom came in contact with
the master. The overseer always carried a rawhide whip which he used when
necessary. The slaves had no rig h t of appeal to the master. The treatment
of fie ld slaves varied a l l the way from extreme cru elty to a consideration
much greater than factory workers received in England during the same
period. O a ce rtain plantation, an overseer told an Englishman, Charles
n
Augustus (14), th a t some slaves he whipped only two or three times a month,
but others were lashed four or five times a week.
Another investigator found slaves on a plantation in Texas standing
no "higher in animal existence than the horse". (15) Then there were cases
of bad tempered masters who intended to do rig h t by the slaves, but in a
moment of rage, committed some cru e lty . "He heard the master threaten his
Negroes with flogging a t le a s t six times, before he went to bed", wrote
Frederick Olmstead in 1855. (16) Another w riter speaks of a Negro who com
plained of a master who w ill "give a thousand dollars fo r you one day and
k i l l you 'j e s t lik e a snake de nex"1.
Flogging seems to have been the standard method of punishment for
re c a lc itra n t offenders. Other methods of refined to rtu re were practiced a t
times, but cruelty was frowned upon by the white community. A slave owner
who used cruel punishment was often summoned in court, especially i f death
resu lted , but he was never charged with murder. The theory was th a t, as he
owned the slave, he would not in te n tio n a lly take his l i f e . Of course,
excessive flogging could cause death and often did. For example, Uncle
T oliver, during the C ivil War in sisted on praying out loud for the Union
cause. Thereupon, h is owner's too sons ordered him to kneel down and pray
-
10-
�fo r the Confederates, but he continued to ask fo r the success of the Union
arms. The boys took turns flogging him u n til he died. (16a)
On the other hand, we have many instances of humane treatment - good
huts to liv e in , warm clothing for w inter made larg ely by the family of the
master, leisu re to ra ise th e ir own gardens, loving care when sick, maintained
fre e of work in old age. (17) One strange incident illu s tr a tin g the
so licitu de of the planter for the health of his slaves may be noted. On a
plantation near Petersburg, V irginia, a gang of Irishmen were hired to drain
a low lying meadow. The planter was asked why he d id n 't l e t his slaves do
the work. He replied, " I t 's dangerous work (unhealthy) and a Negro's lif e
is too valuable to be risked a t i t . I f a Negro d ies, i t ' s a considerable
lo ss, you know."
On one successful plantation, the slaves were encouraged to work hard
by a system of competition. Instead of whipping the lazy ones, the master
gave valuable prizes fo r fa ith fu l work. (IS) Another found whipping could
be larg ely obviated by denying meat to those who needed to be punished. (19)
Probably most of the slaves lived and died in ab ject ignorance. For
example, Captain B asil Hall of the B ritish Royal Navy while v isitin g a friend
in South Carolina, was shown around a slave v illa g e . The Captain asked his
friend, "Can any of them read and write?"
"Certainly none", he answered, "th at is e n tire ly contrary to usage,
and contrary to law in some places. Such things would ce rtain ly make them
discontented with th e ir lo t, and would be quite repugnant to the whole
system of slave d isc ip lin e in th is country."
Nevertheless, some owners did educate the slaves and especially the
children. (20) They also taught them the C hristian re lig io n . Travelling
preachers were often permitted to preach to the Negroes but they were warned
not to say anything about freedom. (21) In one case cited , white and black
attended the same church. The whites sa t w ithin and the Negroes gathered
about the door. The preacher stood by the door so th a t a l l could hear him.
( 22 )
Negro preachers were quite common in early days and some of them be
came famous. For example, a Negro by the name of Harry Hosier, was accredited
by Bishop Coke in 1784, to be one of the best preachers in the world. In
1776, the white preacher of the Gloucester B aptist Church in Virginia died
and a Negro took his place. He held the p ulpit for 24 years. Sim ilarly, Mr.
F rost, the white pastor of a Portsmouth, Virginia, church was succeeded by a
Negro slave by the name of Josuah Bishop. The F irs t B ap tist Church of
Norfolk, V irginia, had a mixed congregation. They established the all-w hite
Cumberland S tre e t B aptist church in 1317.
The religious li f e of the Negro in Virginia was suddenly driven under
ground when a Negro preacher by the name of Nat Turner sta rte d a reb ellio n
of slaves and caused the murder of 61 w hites. T hereafter, Negroes were fo r
bidden to preach the Gospel and a l l - 'T
egro churches were banned (1332). For
-
11-
�the next three decades, the slaves held church meetings in secret. The word
would be whispered around "big meeting tonight". The meeting place would
be some deserted barn or hut. Years a f te r, a Hegro by the name of West
Turner remarked, "Dey law us out of church, but they couldn't law 'way
C hrist." (22a)
Some planters carefully supervised the marriages of th e ir slaves.
Others paid no atten tio n who, of the opposite sex, they lived w ith. (23)
In 1939 an old Hegro by the name of Matthew J a r r e tt was questioned about
marriage customs in slavery days. He said slave couples were to ld to be
fa ith fu l to one another and to be good Christians but, he said, "W slaves
e
lcnowed that them words w asn't biiidin'. Don't mean nothin' lessen you say
'What God done jined, c a n 't no man p u ll asunder'. But dey never would say
d a t. Ju s' say 'How you m arried.' " (2ja) Kindly masters saw to i t th a t
slave fam ilies were not broken up when purchasing or se llin g (24-) but, upon
the death of the master, slaves were often sold, a t auction. I t goes without
saying th a t the auctioneers had l i t t l e respect fo r the san ctity of the
marriage t i e . (25)
On successful plantations the p ro fits seem to have been larg e. Colo
nel Ward, whose place was near Savannah, Georgia, claimed he made 1360
c lea r per hand in 1845. The average cost of his slaves was )425 (26).
In 1850, the receipts on a rice plantation (perhaps the same one) was
590,000. The cost of running the plantation th a t year was )30,000.
On the other hand, there were Southerners who f e l t th a t slavery was
a curse. A Virginian said th a t he was sorry the race existed in V irginia,
destroying as they must the white man's labor. (27)
"The Negroes are the weight continually pulling us down! Will the
time ever come fo r us to be free of them!" This remark was made by L e titia
B urnell. Nine generations before her had been Virginia p lan ters.
To draw any conclusions from a l l th is conflictin g data is d if f ic u lt,
i f not impossible. Notwithstanding, a few general remarks seem in order.
1. I t is believed th a t the average slave looked upon the in s titu tio n
of slavery as permanent and rig h t ju s t as the average slave holder did.
Most of them were born in slavery, e ith e r in th is country or Africa and
knew no other l i f e .
2. The sla v e's in te re sts were very lim ited but, on the whole, those
in te re sts brought him happiness - his food, his family, the warmth of his
cabin in w inter, the breeze as he lay under a tree in summer, the twang of
a banjo as he listen ed to the mellow voices about him. When the news came
th a t he was free he must, have f e l t lik e any of us would i f we were to ld th a t
we had ju st inherited a vast fortune. Although his freedom brought him
resp o n sib ility , uncertainty, and perhaps hunger and want, and the rosy dream
of b lis s became dim or even vanished e n tire ly , he s t i l l clung to freedom as
we would to th a t vast fortune. A fter the C ivil War i t was customary fo r the
Republicans to t e l l the Negroes i f they voted the Democratic tic k e t they
would be sold back in to slavery. That did the tric k !
-
12 -
�3. Another c h a racteristic of the Negro slave was his love fo r his
master. A rather unique example of th is may he found in the study of Turner's
Rebellion. Nat Turner was a slave owned by Joseph Travis of Southhampton
County, V irginia. His m aster's son taught him to read and he became a
preacher of influence among his race. He believed, however, th a t he had
supernatural powers and was destined to lead a rebellio n against the white
race. On August 22nd, 1831, he began by murdering those of the Travis house
hold and then proceeded from plantation to plantation gathering followers
and murdering the whites as he went. Within days the band was captured and
Turner, with twenty of his followers, were trie d and hanged. But the remark
able p art of the story is s t i l l to be to ld . The loss of li f e among the
whites was 61 but i t would have been much higher i f i t were not fo r the
lo yalty and bravery of the house servants. In case a f te r case, they warned
th e ir masters and m istresses of the coming of the murder gang. They hid
them in the corn fie ld s and swamps and misdirected the gang when they
attempted to find them. Very early in the morning, a young Negro named Tom
was watering the horses when he saw the gang coming. He l e f t the horses and
ran from plantation to plantation - a veritable Paul Revere - warning the
whites of th e ir danger. On he went t i l l he reached the Guard House about
noon. The journey nearly k ille d him. I t was a year before he recovered from
h is exertions. He then received - what? His freedom? No. A large sum of
money? Ho, ju s t a c e rtific a te of m erit fo r the many white liv es he had
saved! (28)
During the C ivil War the Southern i;hite women were larg ely a t the
mercy of the slaves, but few attacks are recorded. Love and lo y alty held
them to th e ir du ties.
- 13-
�CHAPTER 3
SLAVERY DIVIDES IIORTH AMD SOUTH
At f i r s t , North and South respected each o th e r's feelings regarding
slavery but they came more and more to fear the oth er's ascendancy to power
in the government. Hot only did the slavery issue tend to alien ate the two
sections of the country, but th e ir in te re sts drew apart because the North
became a maritime and manufacturing people whereas the prosperity of the
South depended upon ag riculture, especially the raisin g of cotton.
The g reatest statesmen of the nation feared th is d iv e rsity of in te re s ts .
Henry Clay, in the South, and Daniel Webster, in the North, spent th e ir p o li
tic a l lives in attempts -mostly successful - to adju st the in te rests of the
two sections.
Clay was born in Virginia and spent most of his li f e in Kentucky, but
he was f i r s t of a l l an American. A Southern member of Congress, in speaking
to Clay, refered to "your country". Clay replied:
"The Honorable Senator speaks of Virginia as being my country.
This Union is my country; the 30 sta te s are my co u n try ..."
The f i r s t great c r is is came when Missouri applied fo r state-hood as a
slave s ta te . Together with Louisiana, which was admitted some years before,
the scales bid f a i r to be tipped heavily in favor of the South.
I t was Henry Clay who devised the Missouri Compromise. This permitted
the admission of Missouri, with the proviso th a t a l l new sta te s admitted
North of la titu d e 36° 30' North sh a ll be forever fre e .
As time went on, the South began to fe e l th a t the Missouri Compromise
was larg ely a victory fo r the North u n til the tab les were turned in th e ir
favor when Texas rebelled against Mexico and joined the Union. What a
wonderful leverage they would have in the Senate i f Texas s p li t in to five
slave states as contemplated} Their joy knew no bounds when, as a re su lt
of war, Mexico ceded to us vast te r r ito r ie s in the South-west, including
C alifornia. They claimed a l l fo r slavery. The North howled to Heaven!
Again, Clay saved the Union. He was old and dying of tuberculosis, b u t he
would not give in . He called on his Northern r iv a l, Daniel Webster, and
together they cooked up the Compromise of 1350. C alifornia was to be
admitted free but the r e s t of the acquired te r r ito r y was to be subject to
slavery, a rig id fug itiv e slave law was to be passed implementing the Con
s titu tio n and slave trade was to be forbidden in the D is tr ic t of Columbia.
Two years a f te r , both Clay and Webster died, the l a tte r in disgrace in the
S tate of Massachusetts.
The fug itiv e slave law placed the recapture of fugitive slaves in the
hands of the Federal Government. Common citizen s could be forced to aid in
th e ir capture. Any one who aided the slave by giving him even a cru st of
bread could, on conviction, be fined )1,000 or ja ile d not more than six
months.
-H -
�The law proved ineffectiv e. J a ils were broken in to by mobs, U. S,
marshals were attacked, run-away slaves were hidden in ce lla rs and sp irite d
to Canada. No wonder Webster died in disgrace! He hated slavery but he
believed the Fugitive Slave Law was constitu tio n al and he advocated i t to
save the Union.
The a b o litio n ists would rath er see the country divided than y ield to
the slavery crowd. Especially did they hate the fugitive slave law.
The founders of the Republic had now a l l passed away. P u b lic-sp irited
men were no longer embarrassed by the word "slavery".
In the South, the slavery party was led by John C. Calhoun. He
described slavery as:
"Good - a positive good. I hold th a t in the present sta te of
c iv iliz a tio n , where two races of d iffe re n t origin, and d is tin
guished by color and other physical differences, as well as
in te lle c tu a l, are brought together, the re la tio n now existing
between the two is , instead of e v il, a good - a positive good."
He liked to picture the slave as affec tio n a tely cared fo r in the South, and
contrasted h is lo t with the deplorable conditions in the Northern fa c to rie s.
He feared the risin g power of the North and suggested amending the Constitu
tio n so as to provide fo r two presidents, one elected by the North and the
other by the South. No measure passed by Congress would become law unless
signed by both presidents. This b r illi a n t suggestion was never even con
sidered, and Calhoun died a defeated man a week or so a f te r the Compromise
of 1350 was passed.
T ile Calhoun was marshalling the slavery forces in the South, the
rh
Abolition Party was
growing in
the North. John Brown tr ie d to lib e ra te the
slaves by force and
was hanged
fo r i t ; Lovejoy of I llin o is wasmobbed and
k ille d fo r editing an anti-slav ery paper; William Lloyd Garrison was
dragged behind a c a rt in Boston (Mass.) and nearly k ille d . He believed
slavery was a sin fo r which his nation would have to jay dearly. Permitted
by the C o n stitu tio n -y e s, but so much the worse fo r the Constitution.
Countenanced in the
Bible - yes, but so much the worse fo r the B ible. Con
s titu tio n or no C onstitution Bible or no Bible - slavery must be e x tir
pated from our country without further delay! Notice th a t a b o litio n ists
were hated and tracked down in the North as w ell as in the South.
With the death of Calhoun, Clay, and Webster, there arose a new
generation of p o litic a l leaders. Jefferson Davis of M ississippi followed
in the footsteps of Calhoun. He was pro-slavery, highly educated, and
dominant. Lixe Calhoun, he feared the growing power of the North.
To keep the nation from s p littin g apart, he suggested two Congresses,
one fo r the North and one fo r the South, ju s t as Calhoun wanted two
presidents but one Congress. For a while, the South dominated the nation
so strongly th a t th e ir fears were larg ely allayed. Franklin Pierce, a New
-15-
�Hampshire Democrat, was elected president in 1352, but he favored the South,
He worked for the Kansas pro-slavery b i l l , appointed Jefferson Davis Secre
ta ry of War, and years la te r , as ex-president, was in f u ll sympathy with the
Confederacy,
Senator Stephen A. Douglas of I llin o is introduced the Kansas-Hebraska
b i l l which effected the postponement of the decision as to whether or not
these te r r ito r ie s should be slave or free u n til they were admitted as s ta te s .
At f i r s t sig h t, the b i l l seems rath er harmless. But i t s effec ts were tra g ic l
In the f i r s t place, i t meant the repeal of the Missouri Compromise
because these te r r ito r ie s were north of the line where slavery was perm itted.
This infuriated the North. Furthermore, as soon as Franklin Pierce signed
the b i l l in 1854, Southerners rushed fo r the te rr ito r ie s so as to be ready
to declare i t a slave sta te when statehood was granted, and Northerners
flocked in to prevent th is from happening. War soon broke out between the
two parties - a war of b u lle ts, not b a llo ts . Villages were destroyed and
murders were common. Each side avenged the a tro c itie s of the other side with
a tro c itie s of th e ir own.
The Supreme Court handed down the Dred Scott decision requiring a
Negro by that name to go back into slavery. The case was notorious. Thus,
the executive, le g isla tiv e , and ju d ic ia l branches of the government a l l
appeared to favor the South. Ho wonder they ceased to complain fo r a while.
President Pierce was followed by a pleasant gentlemen by the name of
James Buchanan. Here was a man eminently f itte d to soothe the growing
anim osities between the North and South. He argued: The fugitive slave
lav/ was on the books; i t was co n stitu tio n al and must be enforced. The South
had no legal rig h t to secede; neither had the North a rig h t to prevent i t by
m ilita ry force. TJ. S . government property could be defended by force, but
th a t was a l l .
Like many men who attempt to be f a ir , he was not liked by e ith e r side
in the qu arrel. When h is f i r s t term expired, he was not re-nominated.
North and South came to hate each other more and more. The North was
in d u stria l, the South, ag ric u ltu ral; the North thrived on a high t a r i f f , the
South thrived on low t a r i f f ; the North was anti-slav ery and the South pro
slavery — what did the two sections of the country have in common?
Pro-slavery pamphlets were d istrib u te d , sta tin g th a t Northerners were
scum, hypocrites, cowardly, and th a t Negroes were not human beings a t a l l .
The North re ta lia te d by describing Southern gentlemen - beating slaves ju st
for exercise. (29)
In the 0 . S. Senate, Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was beaten with
a gold-headed cane and severely injured by Preston Brooks because Sumner had
made an in sulting speech about Senator B utler of South Carolina.
- 16-
�In 1357, the New Englanders held a convention a t Worcester to consider
seceding from the Union. In fa c t, sentiment ran so strong for secession th a t
i t was decided to c a ll a bigger meeting in teo months to include a l l the
North and West. I t f e l l through because a financial pan5.c diverted atten tio n
of the people from p o litic s .
And now comes the most confusing - the most trag ic - the most bloodyperiod of our national h isto ry . Abraham Lincoln became president. He was
not the choice of the people. The vote was 1,360,000 fo r Lincoln and
2.730.000 against him. But the opposition was divided between Douglas,
1,291,000, Breckinridge 350,000, and B ell, 539,000. He had l i t t l e or no
experience in adm inistration. He had served a term in the House of Repre
sentatives but was known only for the d ro ll sto rie s he to ld in the lobby.
He was opposed to slavery in a general way, but the platform of his party
never mentioned ab o litio n . He took no p art in the campaign. I t is in te re s t
ing to remember th a t General Lee was also opposed to slavery. He said i t
was a "moral and p o litic a l e v il" . But, lik e Lincoln, he refused to make an
issue of i t . Lee suggested to Jefferson Davis, during the C ivil War, th a t
the slaves be lib erated and placed in the army, but the l a tte r refused on
the ground th a t such action would be contrary to the s p i r i t of the Confederacy.
Lincoln had l i t t l e or no formal education. He was quite a student of
Shakespeare and the Bible, but otherwise his book knowledge was very lim ited .
He was not cultured and many of his sto rie s could not be repeated in p o lite
society.
When the leaders of the nation found they were saddled with th is
Western boor they must have been panic-stricken. Considering his apparent
unfitness fo r the job and the high calibre of his opponents, i t is hard to
see - a t f i r s t sig h t - hoi; he got a single vote, to say nothing of
1.360.000 votes! But the answer is not fa r to seek. He was an eminent
speaker. His debates with Steven Douglas had been published in the news
papers of the nation. Every time Douglas trie d to corner him in some in
consistency, he would t e l l a funny story which would enable him to side-step
the issue. Besides a l l th a t, his speeches were couched in the best English.
They were v eritable models of sty le as w ell as content. Above a l l, he was
a clever p o litic ia n . He knew his public.
And so he got to Washington.
Once, in the middle of the night, he got to thinking about a funny
sto ry . He in sisted in routing out of bed Colonel Schuyler Hamilton to t e l l
i t to him. After both men had a good laugh, he noticed th a t his only
clothing was a red flannel s h ir t. He then remarked, "E ither I have grown
too long or the s h ir t lias grown too sh o rt, I know not which." (32)
One day a committee meeting in the White House was suddenly alarmed
by a te rrib le c la tte r followed by the appearance of Lincoln's son, Tad,
driving through the room a goat hitched to one of the White House ch airs.
Imagine how a cultured lady lik e Mrs. Lincoln f e l t about such incidents!
Although most of Washington society snubbed him, Ju lia Taft and her
parents called on Lincoln the night before his inauguration. She heard a
-17-
�Washington lady say: "There goes th a t I llin o is ape, the cursed a b o litio n is t.
But he w ill never come back alive" (from his inauguration). But he did come
back alive and had to be reckoned with.
Edward M. Stanton called him "the baboon in the White House", Charles
Sumner went to see him and was astounded when Lincoln said: " I 'l l bet I'm
t a lle r than you, l e t 's stand back to back and measure." Francis Adams,
g reatly impressed by his speeches, v/ent to see him. All he got was a vulgar
joke. (30)
F irs t, he must appoint his cabinet. Upon what were his selections
based? William H. Seward, of Hew York, became Secretary of S tate; Salmon
P. Chase, of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury; Simon Cameron, of Pennsylvania,
Secretary of War; Gideon Welles, of Connecticut, Secretary of the Navy;
Edward Bates, of Missouri, Attorney General; Montgomery B lair, of Maryland,
Postmaster General; Calib B. Smith, of Indiana, Secretary of the In te rio r.
On the whole, he d id n 't choose his western frie n d s. Edward Bates was the
only man selected west of the M ississippi. No one came from th e South.
M wonder! History records not a single vote cast fo r him south of V irginia!
o
I t is possible th a t there were no Northerners residing in the South who
favored him? There were doubtless thousands of anti-slav ery Southerners
but not one voted fo r him? Perhaps the Lincoln votes in the South xjere
ru th le ssly destroyed. But the fa c t remains.
Seward, Chase, Cameron, and Bates, appointees fo r Secretary of S ta te ,
Treasury, War, and Attorney General, were a l l members of the new Republican
Party and a l l ran for the presidential nomination as competitors of Lincoln.
Welles and Smith (Navy and Interior) led delegations a t the convention
favoring Lincoln. They were a l l p o litic ia n s . Cameron was said to be one
of the ab lest p o litic ia n s th is country had ever known. He is said to have
coined the d efin itio n of an honest p o litic ia n as one "who, when bought, w ill
stay bought". (35) He resigned from the cabinet in January, 1862, a t
Lincoln's request, because he favored his friends in the purchase of war
m aterials. In fa c t, Lincoln had been warned of Cameron's ra s c a lity when he
was appointed, but Lincoln replied: "I know, I know, but how am I to get
along i f th a t S tate should oppose my adm inistration?" (referring, of course,
to Pennsylvania.) (33)
Wendell P h illip s called Lincoln "a huckster in p o litic s " . He certain
ly was ju s t th a t. But th a t does not mean th at a l l his p o litic a l appointees
were bad.
Seward had been Governor of New York S tate and U. S. Senator over the
years. He opposed the Compromise of 1850 and the Kansas-Nebraska Act of
1854. He was one of the founders of the Republican Party and, fo r years,
a great opposer of slavery. While Lincoln was tryin g to support the pro
slavery C onstitution, Seward said th a t there was a higher law than the
C onstitution. (31)
Chase was also an able man and strongly a n ti-sla v e ry . He had acted
as counsel fo r a colored woman who was claimed as a slave and the same year
defended a man accused of harboring a fugitive slave. He had served as
-18-
�Senator from Ohio and had been the S ta te 's Governor fo r four years.
Lincoln's death, he became Chief Ju stice of the Supreme Court,
After
Gideon Welles was Chief of a Navy bureau in I 84.6 and so had consid
erable experience in Navy a f f a ir s .
And so, with h is cabinet appointed, Lincoln was immediately faced with
the awful problem of secession. Bewildered, he turned fo r advice to Seward.
The resp o n sib ility fo r the leadership of the country was eagerly accepted by
the Secretary of S ta te . A month a f te r inauguration, Seward suggested in
w riting th a t the government be turned over to him. He p itie d Lincoln's
inexperience and genuinely wished to help him. Lincoln replied the same
day in a friendly and mild tone but ended his l e tte r with the words: " If
th is must be done, I must do i t . " Seward saw the point and from th a t date
never attempted to d ic ta te the national policy. (34)
Before the national election, South Carolina decided to secede i f
Lincoln was elected. A month before the inauguration, Georgia, Alabama,
M ississippi, Louisiana, and F lorida, had followed s u it. Then, a month or
so la te r , came Texas, V irginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North C arolina.
Lincoln decided, in general, to follow Buchanan's policy based on the assump
tio n th a t secession was ille g a l and apparently also he agreed th a t the Con
s titu tio n gave him no power to prevent i t by force of arms, except in the
case of the protection of government property.
But he did everything possible to avoid offending the South.
f i r s t inaugural address he said:
In his
" I have no purpose, d ire c tly or in d ire c tly , to in ferfere with
with the in s titu tio n of slavery in the United S tates where i t
e x is ts . I believe I have no lawful rig h t to do so and I have
no in clin atio n to do so."
After affirming the co n stitu tio n a lity of the fugitiv e slave law and the
necessity of i t s enforcement, he proceeded to the question of secession.
said:
"I hold th a t, in contemplation of universal law and of the Con
s titu tio n , the Union of these S tates is p e rp e tu a l..."
After statin g his reasons fo r th is opinion, he said:
"I therefore consider that in view of the C onstitution and the
laws, the Union is unbroken, and to the extent of my a b ility I
sh a ll take care, as the C onstitution expressly enjoins on me,
th a t th e laws of the Union be f a ith fu lly executed in a l l the
S t a t e s ..."
"In doing th is there need be no bloodshed or violence; and
there sh all be none, unless i t be forced upon the national
authority."
- 19-
He
�" . . . .Where h o stility - to the United States in any in te rio r
lo c a lity sh a ll be so great and universal as to prevent com
petent resident citizens from holding the federal offices
there w ill be no attempt to force obnoxious strangers among
the people fo r th a t o b je c t..."
" . . . . I deem i t b e tte r to forego, fo r a time the uses of such
o f f ic e s ... The course here indicated w ill be followed, unless
current events and experience sh a ll show a modification or
change to be p ro p e r...."
In other words, Lincoln clea rly in sisted on his rig h t to enforce
federal laws in the South but, a t the same time, offered to forego such en
forcement temporarily in the hopes th a t c iv il war could be prevented.
He closed with these words:
"In your hands my d iss a tis fie d fellow countrymen, and not in mine,
is the mementous issue of c iv il war. The government w ill not
a s s a il you. You can have no c o n flict without being yourselves
the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy
the government while I have the most solemn one to 'preserve,
protect and defend i t . ' I am loath to close. W are not
e
enemies but friends. W must not be enemies. Though passion
e
may have strain ed , i t must not break our bonds of affectio n .
The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every b a ttle fie ld
and p a trio t grave to eveiy liv in g h eart and hearthstone, a l l
over th is broad land, w ill yet swell the chorus of the Union,
when again touched, as surely they w ill be, by the b e tte r angels
of our nature."
But secession had already occurred when the inaugural speech was made
and so the country s p l i t in two.
-
20 -
�CHAPTER U
THE CIVIL W R
A
In general, the Army men, the f o r ts , the revenue c u tte rs, the custom
houses and everything located in the South went with the Confederacy and
everything in the Horth went with the Federal Government. The North d id n 't
want the South any more than the South wanted the North. Horace Greeley, of
the New York Tribune, and the a b o litio n ists advocated le ttin g the South go.
The Mayor of New York City suggested, in case of h o s tilitie s between North
and South, th a t the c ity secede from the Onion and become a fre e neutral
c ity . (36)
The South sent three commissioners to Lincoln to negotiate a tre a ty
between the Union and the Confederacy. Among other provisions, the U. S.
Government property seized ty the Confederacy was to be paid for and the
public debt divided. Lincoln would not receive the commissioners because
i t would contradict his claim th a t secession was ille g a l, but he did suggest
th a t they ta lk informally with Seward.
The discussions were apparently quite frien d ly . For example, the
commissioners demanded th a t Fort Sumtbr be turned over to the Confederacy.
Here was a government f o rt defending the harbor of Charleston, South
Carolina, which refused to join in the secession - an exception to the
general r u le . But Seward d id n 't seem to think th is would be an obstacle to
peaceful relations between the two p arts of the country because the Fort
had neither food nor ammunition enough to r e s is t but a few days. Buchanan
had sent an unarmed vessel, The S ta r of the West, to provision the Fort,
but one of his cabinet se cretly informed the Charleston au th o rities th a t
the ship was coming. The Confederates fire d on her and she had to retu rn
without performing her mission. In the meantime, the Confederates prepared
to invest the F o rt. Seven thousand men and 120 pieces of a r ti lle r y were
preparing fo r the attack of the seventy loyal soldiers defending the F o rt.
Certain Southern leaders f e l t th a t bloodshed was necessary to consoli
date the South. V irginia was f u ll of Onion sympathizers. I t was feared th a t
Alabama might return to the Onion. Roger Pryor, la te ly a member of Congres
from V irginia, said:
"....T h e very moment th a t blood is shed, Old V irginia w ill make
common cause with her s is te r s in the S outh..."
Hr. G ilc h rist, member of the Alabama L egislature, said to Jefferson Davis
and his compeers:
"Gentlemen, unless you sprinkle blood in the faces of the people
of Alabama, they w ill be back in the old Union in le ss than
ten days."
The attempt of Lincoln to follow Buchanan’s lead in reinforcing the F ort gave
the Confederates the cue. Now or never1 April 12, 1361, General Beauregard
- 21.
�ordered the bombardment to begin. By April 14-th, the Fort was evacuated by
Major Anderson and his seventy men. Over 3,000 shot and sh e ll had been
fire d a t the F o rt. F ires had been se t and much masonry destroyed. But not
a man k ille d or seriously injured. Major Anderson, himself a Southerner,
\-ias entertained by General Beauregard and his seventy brave men returned
to the North. In a way, i t was hardly more than a token b a ttle , yet i t
caused great enthusiasm in the South and, as expected, did much to weld the
Confederacy together. (37)
The e ffe c t in the North was equally dramatic.
The rebels had fire d on the S tars and S trip es! Patriotism blazed
fo rth . Anderson became a hero overnight. Horace Greeley and the Hew York
Tribune changed th e ir tune from "Let the South go" to "On to Richmond"!
The very next day Lincoln called fo r 75,000 volunteers to put down the
reb e llio n . On April 19th, a blockade of Southern ports was in s titu te d .
Beauregard and 25,000 Confederates marched within th ir ty miles of Washington
where, with the help of reinforcements from Harpers Ferry, he defeated
30,000 Union troops. The defeat became a rout and the rout disintegrated
in to a mob flying for th e ir liv es toward the Potomac. Washington had no
defenses. No one thought of blowing up the Long Bridge over the Potomac.
Baltimore was fo rty miles to the North and strongly Southern in i t s sym
p athies. A few thousand cavalrymen could have taken Washington, together
with the president and his cabinet, with ease. But Beauregard had won such
a b r illi a n t victory he thought i t best to take time o ff to celebrate. When
a t long la s t he was ready to s trik e he found i t inadvisable because Union
troops were being fe rrie d down the coast and might attack his re a r. Besides,
Northern troops were pouring in to the C apital,
In the signal events of th is period had turned out d iffe re n tly , i t
may be in te restin g a t th is point to speculate as to the probable course of
succeeding h isto ry . I f President Lincoln had received the commissioners
from the South who desired a peaceful division of the Nation, i f Major
Anderson had evacuated Sumter a few days before he d id , i f Beauregard had
acted with promptness in invading Washington and had captured Lincoln and
his cabinet - i f any one of these e a sily possible events had occurred our Nation would have become two nations, hating each other a t f i r s t but
eventually co-operating, fo r each would be largely necessary to the other.
I f the Union troops a t Bull Run had been able to annihilate the Con
federates, they would have taken Richmond shortly a f te r and the war would
have been over with comparatively l i t t l e bloodshed. In e ith e r case, slavery
would have p ersisted fo r a while in the South.
In the f i r s t case, Lincoln could not have interfered with i t | in the
second place, he premised not to in te rfe re with i t . But slavery was rapidly
disappearing from the r e s t of the world. The conscience of the world was
turning against i t . Besides, i t was considered in many quarters to be
uneconomical.
Eventually, the slave owners would have been compensated fa r th e ir
slaves and the in s titu tio n abolished forever. But what would have happened
-
22 -
�to the m illions of Negroes in the South? A mass exodus would have been in s t i
tuted with hundreds of ships transporting them back to th e ir native land.
But a f te r a few hundred thousand had been transported, the exodus would have
been stopped by law, because of the need of laborers in the Southern field s
and servants in the Southern homes. Thus, those who remained in America
(and th a t would probably be most of them) would form a lower caste than the
w hites. They would be allowed to take such jobs as they chose but they would
be segregated in liv in g quarters, in schools, and in hotels and restau ran ts.
They would have no p art in government - no vote.
Would Lincoln have approved of to ta l segregation of the Negro? During
the Lincoln-Douglas debates he said, in p art, a t Charleston, I llin o is ,
"I w ill say then th a t I am not nor ever have been, in favor of bringing
about, in any way, the so cial and p o litic a l equality of the white and black
races - th a t I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors
of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to inter-m arry with
white people; and I w ill say in addition to th is , th a t th ere is a physical
difference between the white and black races which w ill ever forbid the
two races from liv in g together on terms of social and p o litic a l e q u a lity ..."
but in his speech a t Ottawa, he said:
"Notwithstanding a l l th is , there is no reason in the world why
the Negro is not e n title d to a l l the natural rig h ts enumerated
in the D eclaration of Independence - the r ig h t to l i f e , lib e rty ,
and the pursuit of happiness..." (37a)
As the C ivil War was nearing i t s end, Lincoln wrote a confidential
l e t t e r to Governor Hahn who was about to take over the government a t New
Orleans: "Nov; you are about to have a convention, which among other things
w ill define the elec tiv e fra n c h is e ...I barely suggest fo r your private con
sideration whether some of the colored people may not be l e t in - as fo r
instance the very in te llig e n t." (37b) Evidently, h is ideas on Negro
suffrage had changed during the war.
In the Providence of God th is peaceful solution was not to be.
Instead, the country was torn by one of the most te rr ib le wars in h isto ry .
In four years, the North lo st over 334,000 k ille d , and the South over 133,000.
The North had twenty-three sta te s and. the South only eleven s ta te s . The
North had a population of 23,000,000 against 5,000,000 whites in the South,
y et the North was defeated time a f te r time by the s k ill with which Lee and
Jackson handled th e ir fo rces. (38)
Lincoln displaced Scott as commander a f te r the battle of Bull Run and
appointed General McClellan, A fter six fru itle s s b a ttle s , McClellan with
drew from the peninsula. Then he was defeated twice in Maryland. He
managed to stop Lee a t Antietam but failed to follow up his advantage.
Lincoln was disgusted and appointed Ambrose Burnside in his place. This
general was no s ta lle r lik e McClellan. He promptly engaged the Confederates
but was severely defeated with g reat lo ss of lif e a t Fredericksburg, Vir
g in ia . So Lincoln sacked him a f te r nearly three months in office and
appointed Joseph Hooker. Then followed Meade and fin a lly , Ulysses S. Grant.
In hopes of winning back the seceding s ta te s , the President had gone to
-
23-
�great lengths to assure the South th a t he would not in te rfe re with slavery.
Now th a t the war had begun and reco n ciliatio n proved hopeless he trie d to
maintain the same policy. Two fac to rs, however, worked strongly against him.
1. The war was largely conducted in the slave s ta te s , resu ltin g in
many slaves escaping to the Union lin e s . Generals Williams and Halleck did
what they could to prevent th is and, in some instances, returned the slaves
to th e ir masters. The re su lt was b itt e r resentment in the North, followed
by a law passed by Congress forbidding such action . (39) General Butler
considered runaway slaves as "contraband of war" to be confiscated lik e any
other property.
In July, 1862, Congress passed a law freeing a l l slaves of rebels
escaping to Union lin e s . I t was estimated th a t there were 5,000 in Virginia
and 9,000 in South Carolina already affected by the law. (40) General
Fremont declared a l l slaves free in Missouri (August 30,186l). (41) General
David Hunter, in 1862, declared a l l slaves in Georgia, F lorida, and South
Carolina fre e . (42) Lincoln reprimanded both generals and countermanded
th e ir orders. At the same time, he realized th a t some solution fa r more
extensive than anything Congress has proposed must be found for the slavery
problem. He advocated:
a.
Gradual emancipation to be carried on by the S tate s;
b.
Compensation to a l l slave holders to be paid by the federal
government a t not over ’>400 per head.
The slaves were to be freed gradually with perhaps a period of apprentice
ship between slavery and freedom, so as to avoid too v io le n t an upset in
society. Both North and South must share in paying compensation to slave
holders because both were responsible fo r slavery.
c.
Voluntary colonization of slaves a t the expense of the govern
ment. (43)
To those who objected to the cost of the program, Lincoln pointed out th a t
a l l the slaves in Delaware could be paid fo r a t ’>400 per head from the cost
of one-half day of war. (44) He begged Congress and, esp ecially , the loyal
slave sta te s (Delaware, 1-foryland, Kentucky, Missouri), to in itia te some such
policy. Apparently i t was much too s o ft for the a b o litio n ists and too hard
to s u it the slave s ta te s . I t was never considered seriously by e ith e r
Congress or the slave s ta te s .
2. The second facto r which caused him to consider the ab o litio n of
slavery was the change in the attitu d e of the voting public. As he approach
ed the presidential office he spoke to a nation la rg e ly committed to slavery.
But when the South seceded most of the slavery sentiment seceded with them.
As the war progressed a b o litio n ists kept increasing in number and prominence.
Delegations sent to Washington were always received with respect and a tte n
tio n but they got no premises of general emancipation. In September, 1862,
a delegation of m inisters advocating emancipation descended on Lincoln from
Chicago. He spent an hour of earnest discussion with them. He hinted th a t
-24-
�there was some hope of a presidential pronouncement in the future but spent
most of the time on objections to such action. He said i t would be inopera
tiv e lik e "the Pope's b u ll against a comet", that, i f operative, he would not
know what to do with the slaves, th a t there would be danger of re-enslave
ment, th a t i t might cause the loyal slave states to give up the b a ttle . (4-5)
The delegation must have gone away discouraged. They l i t t l e knew th a t
w ithin a few days Lincoln would issue his Emancipation Proclamation. In
fa c t, he had been studying over i t and praying over i t fo r weeks.
On September 22, 1362, Lincoln called his cabinet in special session.
He started the meeting by reading a chapter from a book of humor by Artimus
Hard. He said he thought i t very funny. Then suddenly, he read his
emancipation proclamation and asked fo r comments. The cabinet had seen a
preliminary d ra ft before but Seward had suggested th a t he postpone issuing
i t u n til the Union Army had a victory. Otherwise, i t would look s il ly .
Lincoln agreed. After the b a ttle of Antietam (1362, September 17th), he
issued the proclamation. (4-6) I t applied only to rebel sta te s which refused
to take advantage of 100 days of grace and come back in to the Union. Hone
d id. January 1, 1363, the fin a l proclamation was issued. I t provided for
the immediate lib e ra tio n of a l l slaves in rebel sta te s except Tennessee and
occupied parts of Louisiana and V irginia. I t also stated th a t a l l ab lebodied slaves would be received in the Union Army and enjoined the freed
men to avoid a l l violence except in self-defense.
In the North, the proclamation was received with great rejoicing
except by the most rad ical of the a b o litio n ists who thought i t too mild and,
on the other hand, by the slave holders and those who feared th e ir influence.
The South called i t a crime, as destroying four thousand millions
of property, as encouraging Negro insurrection, e tc . Jefferson Davis saw
but one of three consequences - the extermination of the slaves, the exile
of the whole white population from the Confederacy, or absolute and to ta l
separation of these sta te s from the United S ta te s. (47)
After the proclamation was made the Union arms suffered defeat a f te r
defeat and so, for many months, few i f any slaves were freed . But i t s effec t
on our prestige among the nations was immediately b en e ficia l. Our govern
ment was applauded by both France and Spain. The ruling class of England
were skeptical. They pointed out th a t the proclamation applied only to areas
where the government had no power to enforce i t . The loyal slave sta te s
where i t could be enforced were sp e c ific a lly exempted. But the B ritish work
ing class were overjoyed by the proclamation. Ten great B ritish c itie s held
mass meetings to congratulate Lincoln. (43) The Southern diplomats in
Europe noticed the tid e turning against them.
Although the good and bad features of the proclamation were exagger
ated out of a l l proportion to i t s actual importance, the adm inistration a t
Washington was ce rtain ly becoming more and more opposed to slavery. H aiti
and Liberia - two Negro countries - were recognized fo r th e f i r s t time,
December 3, 1361.
-25-
�In Kay, 1862, the United States and Great B ritain agreed to tr e a t the
slave trade as piracy, England had long sought the cooperation of the United
S tates in th is m atter. In fa c t, way hack in 1320 we had prohibited the
trade but i t was too lucrative to the ship owners in the North and the
planters in the South to enforce. But the Lincoln adm inistration hanged
a ship captain by the name of Gordon caught in the slave trade in 1862.
That was said to be the f i r s t re a l enforcement of the law. Slaves were
freed in the D is tric t of Columbia and paid for a t >300 per head. (49)
-26-
�CHAPTER 5
RECONSTRUCTION
O Palm Sunday, April 9, 1865, suddenly, the war ended. There were
n
great armies in the fie ld ready to bring death to thousands of sold iers,
burned homes and a scorched land to loved ones. And then the Confederacy
collapsed a t Appomattox Court House.
The Southern armies disbanded and the soldiers slowly trecked back to
th e ir homes. Food and succor were given where needed by the Northern armies
stationed in the South. Hate and enmity dwindled and in th e ir places there
grew up sympathy and brotherliness, (50) A crowd collected in front of the
White House. Lincoln was asked what he wanted the band to play. He said:
"Play Dixie - one of the best tunes I have ever heard." (51) He loved th a t
tune b e tte r than any.
Although Lee’s surrender a t Appomattox meant the end of the war, i t
immediately la id bare a long l i s t of unsolved problems: The government of
the seceded s ta te s ; the prompt r e li e f of the impoverished and starving South
the punishment or pardon of the c iv il and m ilitary Confederate o fficers;
and most d if f ic u lt of a l l , the disposal or re-in teg ratio n in to the so cial
order of 3,000,000 recently lib erated slaves.
Congress had adjourned and so the ultimate resp o n sib ility fo r every
thing rested on the shoulders of the p resident. Instead of being frightened
he was delighted} According to Welles he said, " I think i t providential
th a t th is great rebellion is crushed ju s t as Congress has adjourned and
there are none of the disturbing elements of th a t body to hinder and embar
rass u s .,,1 hope there w ill be no persecution, no bloody work a fte r the war
is over. No one need expect me to take any p art in hanging or k illin g
those men, even the worst of them ... Enough lives have been sa c rific e d ..."
Seward heard the president say, "W c a n 't undertake to run sta te
e
governments in a l l these Southern s ta te s . Their people must do th a t though I reckon th a t a t f i r s t some of them may do i t badly."
These remarks were made a t the cabinet meeting on the morning of
April 14, 1865 - Good Friday. The meeting was adjourned to meet again
Tuesday, the 13th. After lunch, the president appeared again ready for the
many afternoon's conferences. A Negro woman appeared a t the White House
gate and asked to see the president.
"Let her pass," said one guard to another, " th e y 'll stop her fu rth e r
on." The guard a t the door said, "No fu rth er, madam. Against orders."
But she darted under his arm and rushed forward u n til she was stopped by a
guard a t the next door. Hearing the noise in the h a ll, Lincoln appeared.
He said to the guard, "There is time fo r a l l who need me. Let the good
woman come in ." She to ld him th a t she and her husband had been slaves on
the Harwood plantation near Richmond, th a t her husband had joined the Union
Army but had fa ile d fo r some time to send her any money. She and her three
-
27-
�children were sta rv in g . Lincoln then sa id , "You are e n title d to your so ld ie rhusband's pay. Come th is time tomorrow and th e papers w ill he signed and
ready f o r you,"
But the next day, Lincoln was not in h is o ffic e t o d e liv e r th e papers.
A fter a hard b ut happy day, he had gone to F o rd 's Theatre w ith Mrs. Lincoln
to see "Our American Cousin". Late th a t evening an ex cited croud co lle c te d
in fro n t of th e th e a tr e . A rumor was spreading th a t th e p resid en t had been
shot}
Some two hundred troops had been summoned. Through their efforts a
narrow path across the street was formed and, shortly, a t a l l , lanky man
was carried to 4-53 Tenth Street right opposite the theatre. The blood was
oozing from h is head. Upstairs they go and la y him on the bed of William
Clark. The bed is too cramped for h is long leg s so Dr. Leale orders the
footboard of the bed knocked out. This was found not to be practical, so
they move him diagonally so his fe e t wouldn't hang over. About 7:30 the
next morning he was dead. (52)
Years a fte r , General Bustamante of Mexico was talk in g to Gustav
LeUbach on the former's hacienda. Lehlbach was locatin g engineer for a
proposed railway to run from the United S tates to Mexico C ity. They got to
talk in g about Abraham L incoln. I t seems th a t the Mexican government had
sent the general to Washington to try to get help for h is country against
the invader M axim illian. At one point in the conversation with Lehlhach,
the general exclaim ed, "That man Lincoln was a second Jesus Christ!"
Read again L in coln 's second inaugural.
w rite such words in the h eat of b a t t le !
Could any other American
"The Almighty has His ram purposes. 'W unto the world because
oe
of offenses, for i t must he that offenses come, but woe to that
man by whom the offense cometh.' I f we sh all suppose that
American slavery is one of those offenses which, in the provi
dence of God, must needs come, but which having continued
through His appointed time, Eo now w ills to remove, and that
He gives to both North and South th is terrib le war as the woe
due to those by whom the offense came - sh a ll we discern there
any departure from those divine attributes which the believers
in a liv in g God always ascribe to Him? Fondly do we hope,
fervently do we pray that th is mighty scourge of war may
speedily pass away. Yet i f God w ills that i t continue u n til
a l l the wealth p iled by the bondsman's 250 years of unrequited
t o i l s h a ll he sunk, and u n til every drop of blood drawn w ith
the lash s h a ll be paid by another drawn w ith the sword; as was
said 3000 years ago, so s t i l l i t must be sa id , 'th a t the
judgments of the Lord are true and righteous a lto g e th e r .’
"With malice toward none, with charity for a l l , with firmness
in the right, as God gives us to see the rig h t, l e t us strive
on to fin ish the work we are in; to hind up the nation’s
-28.
�"wounds; to care for him who sh a ll have borne the b a ttle , and fo r
his widow and fo r his orphans; to do a l l which may achieve and
cherish a ju s t and la stin g peace among ourselves and with a l l
nations."
On August 14., 1366, a year and a h alf a f te r Appomattox, the National
Union Convention was held in Philadelphia. At the c a ll to order there
marched in General Couch of Massachusetts, arm in arm with Governor James
L. Orr, of South Carolina. The attempt was made to dramatize the reunion
of North and South. Someone said th a t: "Every eye was suffused with tears
of joy," so much so th a t i t vras ridiculed as the "Tearful Convention".
How many of th js e fine Americans present realized what almost insuper
able problems must be solved before the Nation could return to some semblance
of unity and efficiency? Some of these problems were le g a l, some were
p o litic a l, some were economic, and some were so c ial. Each involved momen
tous decisions, requiring the best brains and the most p a trio tic outlook
fo r th e ir solution. For some there were no good solutions - only a choice
of e v ils .
From a leg al point of view, how were the seceding sta te s to be re
admitted? The C onstitution of the United States had been amended to outlaw
slavery since the sta te s l e f t the Union.
Must the returning sta te s be forced to swear lo y alty to a Consitution
of which they did not approve? I t was not abolitio n of slavery to which they
objected so much as enfranchisement of the former slav es. In sta te s lik e
South Carolina there were more Negroes than w hites. Uhat would you think
of a country which forced seceding sta te s to re -e n te r a Union with a changed
Constitution? One solution suggested and strongly advocated in the North
was the admission of the seceded sta te s as te r r ito r ie s to be governed from
Washington u n til such time as they desired statehood under the amended Con
s titu tio n . I f they d id n 't lik e the C onstitution they could remain t e r r i
to rie s .
But i f a l l these leg al and constitu tio n al problems could be solved to
the sa tisfa c tio n of everybody, what would happen to the Republican Party
when the seceding sta te s re-entered the Union?
The Democrats had been dominant fo r years p rio r to the C ivil War.
I t was only due to a party quarrel th a t the Republicans won the electio n .
The Republican chiefs f e l t th a t th e ir only hope of survival was to make the
South strongly Republican. (54.)
The southland was bankrupt including most of the business houses.
The banks were f u ll of worthless Confederate money. In the paths of the
contending armies were miles of burned homes and ruined farms.
The economic problem was the f i r s t to require immediate so lution.
The South was poverty stricken almost to the verge of sta rv a tio n . (55)
-29-
�Some three m illions of Negroes had suddenly been freed. General Lee
feared they would turn and murder th e ir former masters. The rad ical Re
publicans trusted them to turn the South into a Republican camp. Many
Southern whites decided they could no longer liv e in a land dominated by
Yankees, A number made overtures to form a colony in B razil. They found
they would be very welcome.
Lincoln believed the Negroes should be sent back to A frica. k colony
had already been sta rte d in L iberia, but soon the number going East dwindled
and fa ile d . The Negroes d id n 't want to go. Those who went wanted to come
back. (56) After a l l , th is was th e ir country as tr u ly as i t was the white
man's. Many of the slaves' ancestors had been brought here with the f i r s t
settlem ents. In the same way, and fo r the same reason, the B razil colony
fa ile d . I t was a good country but not th e ir native land. One emigration
and only one was extensive and quite successful, i . e ., the one to the
Southwestern sta te s of Arkansas, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico. Here the out
raged and disheartened whites could make a new s ta r t in li f e and s t i l l be
within the confines of th e ir native land.
In a l l the chaos and confusion the greatest influence fo r s ta b ility
and patience among almost impossible surroundings was General Robert E. Lee.
His counsel was always: "Stay home, the country needs you," But his fears
about the Negroes turning on th e ir former masters proved not to be ju s t i
fie d . Of course, there were murders and rapings and much ste alin g . On the
whole, though, the Negroes ju s t took a vacation. When hunger and exposure
overtook them, they went back to work fo r th e ir former masters, did odd
jobs for others, or d rifte d by hundreds into r e lie f s ta tio n s.
As a freed-woman expressed i t : "a heap was workin' and a heap is
la z in ' round." (57) In many cases the Negroes became share croppers but
they knew so l i t t l e of simple arithm etic th a t frequent misunderstandings
arose. In Wilkes County, Georgia, the Negroes who were g ettin g one-fourth
of the crop q u it because in the neighboring plantation the hands were
g etting o n e-fifth of the crop. In another Georgia case, a tenant who was
to pay one-fourth crop as ren t fo r the land hauled in only three loads.
He kept them a l l fo r himself because, as he told the landlord, there was
no fourth load th a t y ear. In another case, the landlord took a l l the crop
although he had promised h a lf to the sharecropper. He explained, however,
th a t the crop was so poor th a t only his h a lf was harvested. (58)
Everyone knew th a t education of the freedmen was absolutely necessary.
North and South a lik e gave generously. P lantation owners established
schools fo r the children of the farm workers. School teachers, animated by
missionary zeal, went South in droves. General John Pope, reporting to
General G rant in 1867, said: " I t may safely be said th a t the marvelous
progress made in the education of these people (the freed men) aided ty
noble charitable contributions of Northern so cieties and individuals, finds
no p a ra lle l in the h isto ry of mankind. In 1867, Telladega College was
founded by DeForrest in Alabama. The following year, Hampton In s titu te was
established in V irginia by General Armstrong, who said: "An im itation of
Northern models w ill not d o ...rig h t methods of work in th e South must be
-
30-
�created - not copied." The ex-slave, Booker T. Washington, educated a t
Hampton, went to Alabama aid established Tuskegee I n s titu te . All these
schools were segregated and apparently no attempt was made anywhere a t in
teg ratio n . (59)
The Selma Times, discussing the measures proposed by citizen s of
Oxford, M ississippi, to educate the Negro said: " I f i t ever was good policy
to keep them ignorant, i t certain ly is no longer so, but the very reverse",
"th at they would probably be granted the rig h t of suffrage", th a t "ignorant
voters are a curse to our country."
Before the C ivil War i t was often customary for colored and white to
worship together. I t was thought dangerous fo r Negroes to worship alone.
They were s tr ic tly segregated, however, along color lin e s , one p art of the
church being reserved for each race. A fter the war, the colored and white
p arts of the congregation separated. For example, the F irs t B aptist Church
a t Montgomery, Alabama, had a membership of three hundred white and six
hundred colored before the war. After the war, both races combined to build
a new church for the colored people. During i t s construction both races
worshipped in the old church. When the new one was ready, the congregation
separated w ith th e best of feelings on a l l sides. (61)
In June, 1866, a Negro attended service a t the fashionable S t. P aul's
Episcopal Church in Richmond and went to the communion r a i l , astonishing
congregation and re c to r. A dignified gentlemen got up frcm h is pew and
k n elt beside him. The congregation then followed. The name of the digni
fied gentlman was General Robert E. LeeJ (6la)
Although the South as a whole was b itte r ly opposed to Negro suffrage,
there were many Southern leaders who favored i t .
Wade Hampton of South Carolina, where Negroes were in the m ajority,
was one, Alexander H, Stevens of Georgia wanted Negroes who came up to
ce rtain standards of property and education to vote. General Swayne, head
of the Bureau in Alabama, remarked th a t the sta te would have given the
Negroes the suffrage were i t not fo r the odious Reconstruction Acts. (62)
There are instances of p o litic a l cooperation. For example, conserva
tiv e s in Nashville, Tennessee, invited Negroes to a county convention. An
ex-Confederate Congressman, A lbert S. Colyar, said in an address a t Winches
te r :
"Any appliance w ill be used and every conceivable device
resorted to to prejudice the freedmen against th e ir former
masters. Fortunately, notwithstanding the la te war in which
i t was confidently predicted there would be a war of races,
there is the best possible feeling between the races."
Although the problems in the South were by fa r the most v ita l, the
North had th e ir differences a lso . Probably the average Northerner followed
Lincoln in his desire to heal the N ational's wounds. President Andrew
Johnson, who followed Lincoln, trie d in the main to carry out his p o lic ie s.
-
31-
�In fa c t, the two men were quite sim ilar in background, in education, and
sympathy. Lincoln was a Westerner and Johnson a Southerner, but both were
born in extreme poverty, both had l i t t l e formal education, both were brave,
both were sincere, both made th e ir way to the top by sheer force and
a b i lity . But there were differences. Lincoln had a keen sense of humor
and an abiding love of the beau tifu l, especially in lite r a tu r e , Johnson
lacked both these a ttr ib u te s . He had an uncontrollable temper. He detested
the Southern gentlemen with his slaves and his li f e of ease. Johnson came
of "po white trash" and he was proud of i t .
During the la s t p art of his adm inistration, Lincoln came to d if fe r
strongly with the leaders in Congress, Lincoln stood fo r no re p risa ls, no
punishment - a general amnesty with ce rtain exceptions. When one-tenth of
the voters in I 860 in a given s ta te took the oath of allegiance they could
form the new sta te government. (63) To th is the Congressional leaders were
g rea tly opposed.
In the Senate there was Benjamine F. Wade, who served as Senator
from Ohio from 1351 - 1369. He became president pro tern of the Senate.
Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, who had been elected to f i l l Daniel
Webster's seat in the Senate in 1351. In the House th ere was Henry Winter
Davis of Maryland and the most rad ical of a l l of them, Thaddeus Stevens of
Pennsylvania. He held that the re la tio n between South and North should be
th a t of conquered to conqueror, th a t the seceding sta te s should be re
admitted as te r r ito r ie s governed from Washington u n til the Southern people
learned, "the principles of freedom and can eat the f r u its of foul
reb e llio n ". (64.)
At f i r s t , the rad icals were a l l fo r President Johnson, knowing his
aversion to the slave holding class in the South, but when he indicated
his purpose to follow in Lincoln's footsteps they turned on him lik e a pack
of wolves. The rad icals also had Edwin II. Stanton, Secretary of War, on
th e ir side. He not only acted as spy in Johnson's cabinet, but he had a t
h is command the only telegraph lin e to the White House, (65) When Johnson
discovered he was se cretly working against him, he asked him to resign, but
he refused. The radicals turned on Johnson a most te rrib le campaign of
v ilific a tio n , ending in the impeachment proceedings which fa ile d for one
vote of ousting him May 16, 1863. One year previous, Thaddius Stevens,
chairman of the House Reconstruction Committee,brought in a b i l l to put the
Southern sta te s under m ilita ry ru le . I t was amended in the Senate and
vetoed by President Johnson and then passed over his veto, March 2, 1867.
The law was known as the Reconstruction Act and provided:
1.
That the former Confederate sta te s be divided in to five m ili
ta ry d is tric ts and ruled by th e Federal Army.
2.
That any s ta te wishing to return to statehood must permit
Negro suffrage and r a ti f y the 14-th amendment to the Con
s titu tio n . The 13th Amendment had abolished slavery in
the United S ta te s. The 14th Amendment was sent to the
sta te s fo r r a tific a tio n on June 13, 1866,
-32-
�I t provided among other items:
1.
That representation in Congress should depend on the actual
population of the sta te minus the number of Negroes not
permitted to vote;
2.
No one was allowed to hold a Federal or S tate office who haa
sworn to support the government and then reb elled .
Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky voted against the amendment but i t was
f in a lly r a tif ie d July 28, 1863.
By means of the 15th Amendment, the C onstitution was again amended
February 26, 1869 and r a tif ie d March 30, 1870, providing th a t the rig h t to
vote shall not be abridged because of race, color, or previous condition of
servitude. Connecticut, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had rejected Negro
suffrage in 1865, when i t was proposed in the S tate le g isla tu re , Kansas in
1367; Michigan and Missouri in 1368; and IT York in 1869, but in 1870 i t
ew
became the law of the land. (66)
The 15th Amendment to the C onstitution l e f t the South no escape from
the most d is ta ste fu l requirement fo r re-admission to the Union - the
enfranchisement of the Negro. Many of the Southern S tates passed laws
known as "black codes" to regulate the conduct of the hordes of ex-slaves
wandering over the countryside. Some of these were necessary. Others were
d ra s tic , e. g. M ississippi and South C arolina. M ississippi went beyond a l l
necessary re s tr ic tio n s . No Negro could own land or even lease i t outside
of towns. He was required to carry a pass. I f he q u it h is job he could be
arrested and brought back to his employer. (69) Georgia expelled two S tate
Senators and twenty-eight from the lower house solely because they were
Negroes. The s ta te , although i t had been re-admitted, was therefore thrown
out of the Union u n til th is action was corrected. (67)
Contrary to what the radical party in the North expected, the
enfranchisement of the Negro in the South did not re s u lt in Negro control
of the sta te governments. They simply acted as pawns fo r crooked vihite
p o litic ia n s who became suddenly wealthy a t the expense of the tax payers.
Take Louisiana as an example. Henry Clay TJarmoth was elected Governor with
Negro votes in 1863. He had been dropped from the Union Army by Grant
because he was a th ie f . He appealed to the Negro voters because he said
he would pump th e ir black blood out of th e ir veins and replace i t with
white blood.
During his adm inistration the S tate debt grew from s ix m illion to
f i f t y m illion d o lla rs. Governor Uarmoth's salary was 08,000 per year, but
out of th a t he savedC’100,000 per yearl He served two terms, had a row with
other white Republican leaders and became a Democrat. (70)
The Reconstruction program was in f u ll swing about 1870, but instead
ofa resto ratio n of democracy, the S tates were subjected to a tyrany fa r
-33-
�worse than before. Besides th a t, the white carpet-baggers and scalawags
milked the country of i t s meagre resources.
A study of the years immediately following the passage of the Recon
.
stru ctio n Act yields l i t t l e else than tragedy. Besides the te rrib le prob
lems to be met, the country seemed to have been governed by men who lacked
a b ility , character, patriotism , or even simple honesty. The press and even
the C hristian churches helped to engender b ittern ess and h ate. Northern
and Southern newspapers vied with each other in d istrib u tin g scandal about
sta te s lying on the opposite side of the Mason and Dixon lin e . The New
York Times reported in 1865: "The editors of th e South are almost as d is
loyal and contemptible and almost as malign and mean as the m inisters of
the Gospel." (63)
Referring to the Southern "black codes" the Chicago Tribune,
(December 2, 1865) stated : "The men of the North w ill convert M ississippi
in to a frog pond before they w ill allow any such laws to disgrace one foot
of s o il." (71)
A lady in South Carolina said to a teacher sent from Ohio to one of
the Negro schools: "You might as w ell tr y to teach your horse or mule to
read as to teach these niggers." A South Carolina newspaper, the "F airfield
Herald", spoke against "the hell-born policy" which has submitted the
f a ir e s t and noblest sta te of our sisterhood: "to the rule of gibbering,
louse eaten, devil worshiping barbarians frcm the jungles of Dahcmey,
and peripatetic buccaneers from Cape Cod, Memphremagog, Hell and Boston."
Janies Russell Lowell, the famous New England poet wrote:
"The South called for war and we have given i t to her.
He w ill f ix the terms of peace ourselves and we w ill
teach the South th a t C hrist is disguised in a dusky race,"
Some of these quotations apply to times before the Reconstruction
Act was passed but they illu s tr a te the growing s p i r i t of hate and antagonism.
Gone was the s p ir it of Abraham Lincoln - silenced by an a ssassin 's b u lle t.
He said: "L et's play D ixie." Silenced was the s p ir it of Andrew Johnson who
offered general amnesty to the Confederate sta te s - who was himself a
Southerner and could have done much to heal the national wounds. Gone was
the s p ir it of Robert E. Lee. He preferred to drop out of the picture and
take the presidency of a Southern college, but when occasion offered, he
always counselled tolerance, patience, and forgiveness.
Where was Governor Orr of South Carolina who entered the Union Con
vention arm in arm with General Couch of Massachusetts?
Where were the citiz en s of Oxford, M ississippi, who were preparing
to educate the Negro because: "Ignorant voters are a curse to any country"?
Where were the frien d ly people of Montgomery who contributed so generously*
to the building of a Negro church? What had happened to Wade Hampton of
South Carolina and Alexander Stevens of Georgia, who advocated Negro
suffrage?
-3U-
�The answer is th a t a new set of leaders had come in to power. The
people North and South were the same people, but the leaders in power had
changed. They substituted fo r the fine e ffo rts of th e ir predecessors the
s p i r i t of hate, revenge, and cru e lty . Tragedy followed them wherever they
went.
W ell-disciplined troops both black and white were in some instances
welcomed by the Southern people, but where the d iscip lin e was lacking, they
only made trouble, toother disturber of the peace was the Ku Klux Klan.
The Klan had been formed in Pulaski, Tennessee, around Christmas time, 1365,
as a purely so cial club, but th e ir antics - shrouded in white sheets were soon found to strik e te rro r among the Negroes, who took them fo r
ghosts. As a method of intim idating the Negroes, the idea spread lik e wild
f ir e through the Southern S ta te s, In the meantime, the unscrupulous car
pet-baggers attempted to form another secret organization among the Negroes,
known as the Loyal League. They were taught to despise the whites and
eventually take th e ir land. But the dread of the Ku Klux Klan soon caused
the Loyal League to disappear. The Klan was headed by a very fine exConfederate o ffic e r, General Nathan Bedford F o rrest. The s ta te branches,
known as "dens" were officered by men of character. Nevertheless, i t soon
degenerated in to an instrument of race hatred, of arson, and, in some cases,
of murder. In 1869, the leaders became so alarmed a t the crim inal acts of
i t s members th a t they formally dissolved the order, but i t continued to
operate. The worst elements joined or posed as members. (72)
The poor Negroes were threatened which ever way they voted - by the
Klan i f they voted fo r the radical adm inistration then in power; by the
Radicals, who to ld them i f they voted fo r the Democrats they would be se n t
to Cuba as slaves. (73)
Rioting occurred a t many places in the South, e.g . a t Camilla, in
Southwestern Georgia, and especially in M ississippi. In Bossier Parish
some fo rty to one hundred twenty Negroes were shot. In S t. Landry Parish
th ir ty to three hundred Negroes were k ille d .
In Arkansas, Governor Clayton reported: "Hundreds of quiet and lawabiding citizens" were murdered. In almost a l l of the trag ed ies, au th o ri
tie s d if fe r as to who fire d the f i r s t shot and the exact number k ille d . (74-)
The high numbers were generally reported by the Republicans or Radicals,
as they were called , and the low figures by the Democrats. Due to dishonest
voting management - probably try both p a rtie s - two men claimed the Governor
ship of Louisiana, William P, Kellog, Republican and McEnery, the Demo
c ra tic fusion candidate. Each attempted to rule the s ta te and in s ta ll th e ir
henchmen in the minor o ffices. In Grant Parish, the fusion sh e riff seemed
to be in peaceful control a t the County Seat, Colfax, when he was fo rcib ly
deposed by the Kellog faction backed by a number of Negro m ilitia . The
infuriated s h e riff, with 150 men, then marched on Colfax and drove the
militiamen into the Court House. Here both sides violated flags of tru ce.
The Court House was s e t on fire and the militiamen burned to death or shot
as they ran out. This was E aster Sunday, April 13, 1873. When i t was a l l
over, 59 bodies were counted. The Democrats ju s tifie d the slaughter as
-
35-
�avoiding an uprising of Negroes such as had occurred in Santo Domingo. The
Republicans called i t a "deliberate, barbarous, cold-blooded murder. (75)
These same p o litic a l factions had a pitched b a ttle a t Coushatta
P arish. Six white Republicans fin a lly gave up th e ir offices to end the
fig h t. They were being conducted to Shreveport under armed guard when they
were attacked and a l l murdered. August, 1874. (76)
Another b a ttle occurred in Hew Orleans, the same year. F ifty -six men
were k ille d in action. These are perhaps extreme instances of rio tin g , but
there were many, many others throughout the South. Intim idation was always
used fre ely around election time by both parties and especially by the
Negroes themselves against each other. (77) The word "bulldoze" was in tro
duced in Louisiana to describe the process. Liquor was used fre ely and
found to be very effe c tiv e , especially w ith the colored people. (73)
Ballot-box stu ffin g was common. The e a sie st and most effectiv e method of
vote control was the appointment of an election board. Their duty was to
throw out votes from unfavorable d i s t r ic ts . They were designated as
fraudulent. Thus the party in power, no m atter how unpopular, continued
in o ffic e.
Vicksburg, M ississippi, had in 1874, a population of 11,000. The
government was supported largely by Negro votes but the taxes came from
the w hites. In five years, the public debt increased from 313,000 to
'‘.1,4.00,000. In the Spring of 1874, a white man, under twenty-three in d ic t
'
ments, was nominated for mayor, and fo r alderman, one i l l i t e r a t e white man
and seven low-type Negroes. The opposition, headed by old white citizen s
and a few su b stan tia l Negroes, attempted to defeat the corrupt tic k e t,
whereupon a hurried c a ll was sent to Washington fo r troops by the S tate
Governor. This time Washington refused and the crooks were turned out of
o ffic e . (79)
In 1871, a f te r th ree years of Republican government in South Carolina,
a congressional committee investigated i t s finances. I t seems th a t the
s ta te debt three years before had been about '35,800,000. How the Governor
said i t was 316,731,306, or, i f figured to include other indebtedness,
i t was 329,371,306. There were a l l so rts of other estim ates placed on i t .
In fa c t, no one re a lly knew ha/ big the debt was. (80)
W have described above, in some d e ta il, ha; the government of the
e
South degenerated in eight or ten years to such an extent the common people
became desperate. R iots, g ra ft, fraud, ballot-box stu ffin g , election d is
honesty were common. Thievery had been so great in some of the sta te s th a t
there v/as l i t t l e l e f t in the treasury and no c re d it available upon which the
s ta te could borrow.
- 36-
�CHAPTER 6
REVIVAL PERIOD
W w ill a w outline some of the factors which enabled the South to
e
build i t s e l f up again to decency and order. Two mighty forces held the
South down during the Reconstruction period, v iz ., the Ku Klux ICLan and
the army of occupation.
1. The ICLan became so vicious th a t Congress passed a special a c t to
enable the law enforcement agencies to grapple with the problem. In South
Carolina, on November 28, 1871, 501 persons were charged with v iolation of
the Ku Klux Act. Five were convicted, f i f t y confessed. Later, the number
rose to eighty-two imprisoned, fined, or both. (81) Thus, the menace of
the Ku Klux Klan ended, although fo r decades to come lynchings occurred
in the South. They probably represented a survival of the Klan p ractice.
2. The second element of force dominating the South was the U. S.
troops quartered in every s ta te . Their power was d ire c t rath er than
hidden, but, lik e a l l soldiers away from home, they disgraced the flag in
some cases, by raping and drunkenness. The worst feature of th e ir presence
in the South was due to the fa c t th a t they were used p o litic a lly to main
ta in the radical Republican party in power against the wishes of the vast
m ajority of the decent citiz en s, both black and w hite.
Their removal, lik e the breaking up of the Ku Klux Klan, g reatly
improved conditions. Both may have been necessary when the Reconstruction
period began, but a f te r a feu years both became influences fo r e v il. With
the removal of force, the Reconstruction period was considered as ending
in Georgia in 1872 (82), in Alabama in 1874 (S3), in M ississippi in 1876
(34), in Florida and South Carolina in 1877. (85)
In M ississippi, the Democrats devised a method of removing from office
the dishonest and incompetent Republican office holders. General George,
an able and honest ex-Confederate o ffic e r, managed the campaign fo r the
Democrats. The u tte r ruin which the Republicans had brought on the sta te
was enlarged upon a t the p o litic a l r a ll ie s . Due to the good offices of an
emissary from the Government a t Washington, both p arties agreed to avoid
a l l bloodshed and violence, but the Democrats substitu ted a show of force
which over-awed th e ir opponents.
Democratic clubs were converted into marching troops, sometimes with
borrowed cannon. In one county, the Democrats appeared a t th e polling
place on horseback, each with a rope hanging over the saddle. Fifteen
minutes before the polls opened, the leader announced in a loud voice,
"the hanging won't begin fo r fifte e n minutes", whereupon the Negro voters
quickly disappeared. (86) The r e s u lt was an overwhelming victory fo r the
Democrats throughout the s ta te . In fe e t, the plan was so successful i t
was copied by South Carolina and came to be known as "The M ississippi
Plan". I t consisted in organizing a l l honest men in to a huge uniformed
army which attended a l l p o litic a l meetings of friend and foe. Resort to
bloodshed was avoided a t a l l co sts. In a very‘few cases where they were
37-
-
�attacked, they refused to r e ta lia te . In one case th e ir principal speaker was
arrested by Federal troops a t the instance of the Republicans. They sub
m itted without violence. Wade Hampton, th e ir candidate fo r Governor, was
an exceptionally fine character. He promised the whites and Negroes equal
protection and ju s tic e , i t times, his Negro speakers were surrounded by
h is "troopers" to protect them from mob violence. Hampton won the election
and South Carolina was restored to decent government. (37)
Two more factors helped defeat the thieving governments:
selves.
F ir s t, the Republicans in some instances came to fig h t among them
Second, the sta te governments became bankrupt. There was l i t t l e more
to s te a l. Their c re d it sank so low th a t they found i t almost Impossible to
borrow money. In one instance the c itiz e n s refused to pay taxes u n til
honest men were nominated for o ffice.
-33-
�CHAPTER 7
W
HITE SU EM C
PR A Y
When the federal troops l e f t the South, conditions began to improve
but s t i l l the people were poor, disorganized and b itt e r . In a l l elections
Negro votes were important. Several counties in the Southern States were
predominantly Negro but in only three sta te s as a whole - M ississippi,
Louisiana, and South Carolina - did the Negroes outnumber the w hites. (38)
I f re a l democracy had prevailed, one would have expected many county o ffic ia ls
to be Negro and, in sta te s lik e M ississippi, the sta te o ffic ia ls would mostly
be Negro. To a very small extent, th is was tru e . At times there viere Negro
senators and representatives sent to Washington. But, although the Negro
vote was very important everywhere, the b allo ts were larg ely cast fo r white
people so th a t the white race had firm control of the government except a t
election tim e. By ballot-box stu ffin g and fradulent b a llo t counting, the
Negro vote was gradually cut down. In one area, separate boxes were used
fo r each o ffic e. When a Negro was about to vote, the boxes were shuffled.
Any b a llo t placed in the wrong box was declared void.
To s t i l l fu rth e r diminish Negro influence,, the "M ississippi Plan"
(mentioned above) was enlarged and employed a t election time. Uniformed
bands of men armed with guns v isite d polling places. Shots were fire d under
the fe e t of Negroes lined up to vote. They soon learned i t was dangerous
to vote and useless, too, because th e ir b allo ts would probably not be
counted. So determined were the white people to control th e ir government
th a t they organized to eliminate a l l party differences. Confederate
so ldiers were nominated to a t tr a c t white voters. The name of the prevailing
party was changed from "Democratic" to "Conservative" so as to include as
many Republicans as possible. Ho m atter how much you dislik ed a candidate
you must vote fo r him i f he was white. I f you organized or encouraged the
Negroes, you were d isloyal to your race. So, in a very few years, Negro
voting was p ra c tic a lly elim inated. (89)
There was, however, a c e rta in uneasiness on the p a rt of the ru lers
th a t i f ever the two party system returned to the South, riv a lry might
again bring back the Negro vote. And th a t was ju s t what happened. The
farmers revolted against the rule of the Confederate so ld ie rs. The l a tte r
i;ere in f in ite ly b e tte r than the carpet-baggers but they were too penurious.
The carpet baggers spent money lik e drunken sa ilo rs , but the Confederate
veterans cut down on everything. Schools suffered badly. No governmental
function requiring appropriations was properly maintained. The farm er's
Grange became the "Alliance and Cooperative Union of America" which fostered
the People's or Populist Party. (90) Many Republicans joined them. They
advocated what we would c a ll "local option". During the Conservative
adm inistration, the county officers in the "black counties" were appointed
by the s ta te .
The Populist Party proposed to restore local adm inistration. The
whites now had two p arties in the f ie ld ; the Negro vote was sought by both.
The Populist won but not fo r long. When the Conservatives, who now dared
to c a ll themselves "Democrats", returned to power they sought sane leg al
method of disfranchising the Negro which would not involve the temporary
expedient of fe a r and fraud. In the year 1890, M ississippi came up with
-
39-
�the answer. She changed her constitu tio n so as to require fo r voting:
(1)
Two years residence in the sta te ,
(2)
One year in the d is t r ic t,
(3)
A :')2.00 p o ll tax payable by February 1st (the previous y ea r's
tax must also be paid),
(4)
Read and understand any section of the sta te co n stitu tio n .
I t was also provided th a t no male e n title d to vote before January 1 st, 1867,
in any s ta te , or any lin e a l descendant of such a person sh a ll be denied the
rig h t to vote because of fa ilu re to meet te s t (4)• Test (2) debarred quite
a few Negroes. Test (3) debarred a lo t more. C ertainly few Negroes would
pay '>2.00 nine months before electio n in order to vote. Test (4) in the
hands of a dishonest p o ll clerk could debar a l l the r e s t . Even though
honestly administered, hardly five per cent of the Negro voters could pass.
The saving clause a t the end waived Test (4) from affectin g i l l i t e r a t e
w hites. (91)
The M ississippi constitution proved so successful in elim inating the
Negro vote th a t South Carolina adopted a sim ilar one in 1395, adding a long
l i s t of disqualifying crimes and waiving Test (4) fo r those holding a t
le a s t )300 of property. Louisiana made sim ilar revisions of her co n stitu
tio n in 1893. Then followed North Carolina, Alabama, and Oklahoma. (92)
I t is strange th a t the Supreme Court of the United States permitted
these consitutional amendments to become law. One would also wonder why
these laws disfranchising Negroes did not cause protests in the North. I t
has been suggested, however, th a t because the country was engaged about
th is time in putting down an insurrection in the Philippines and was not
w illing immediately to grant universal suffrage th ere, i t would not have
looked w ell to quarrel with the Southerners over suffrage a t home. Other
phases of race rela tio n s may be touched upon here.
Education:
A fter the f i r s t great drive of 1365 - 1875 to bring the education
of the Negro up to the white standard, a general feelin g of disappointment
seems to have beset the country, both North and South, S alaries of teachers
were pitably sm all. Some were devoted missionaries of education, but very
poor teachers. The Negroes had to work hard fo r a liv in g and could only
spare short in te rv als of time fo r study. Those who were both gifted
mentally and had time to study found, upon graduation, th a t race prejudice
prevented them from getting jobs commensurate with th e ir a b ility . Many
whites believed th a t an educated Negro was a plow-hand spoiled. The
general impression prevailed among Negroes th a t to be educated meant to
liv e without working. This class came to look on Booker T. Washington as
an enemy because he taught h is pupi.ls to become sk illed workers and leave
-40-
�the adjustment of so c ia l relations with the whites to the future. (93) One
thing the Negro schools did accomplish - the decrease in illite r a c y . In
1865, a t le a st 90$, perhaps 955?, of the Negroes could n eith er read nor w rite.
In 1910, the illite r a c y fo r those over ten years old was 30.4-5?. For the
w hites, the percentage was 3/?. (94)
Law enforcement.
Many southern whites believed th a t fo r ce rtain crimes committed by
Negroes, punishment should be summarily imposed without recourse to courts
or ju rie s . I f a white man raped a Negress, i t was an ind iscretio n . I f a
Negro raped a white woman, he should be summarily k ille d and perhaps
tortu red .
I t has been sta te d th a t, a t f i r s t , lynchings were performed by
reputable c itiz e n s. Whether or not th is is tru e, i t is certain th a t la te r
i t was used by lower class citizens to punish Negroes and some whites for
crimes supposed to have been committed. Sometimes the offense was t r i v i a l .
As there was no court or jury to pass on the g u ilt or innocence of the
victim , maty were doubtless k ille d who had nothing to do with the crime for
which they were charged. In 54 years (1832 - 1936) 3384 lynchings were
committed. (96) In 205? of these cases, the victims were accused of rape.
Population growth.
After freeing of the slaves in the South, ce rtain extravagant s ta te
ments were made regarding the future growth of the population. One party
said th a t the Negro b irth ra te was so large the South would be a l l black in
a few years. Others said the Negroes would a l l die of starv atio n because
they wouldn't work without an overseer with a whip.
Censuses taken in 1890, 1900, and 1910, show the percentage increase
in Negro population le ss than th a t of the w hites. The reason seems to be
the higher death ra te among the Negroes, especially in the c i tie s . For
example, between 1910 and 1920, the white population increased 20.95? and
the Negro 11.2$. (95)
I t is in te restin g to speculate on the changes which would have
occurred in h isto ry i f Lincoln had lived to f i l l out his second term as
p resident. Before h is death, resistance to his po licies was building up
f a s t in Congress. He might have suffered the same fate as his successor,
Andrew Johnson, but he was such an astu te p o litic ia n and so beloved by the
people, th a t Congress might have been forced to bend to h is w ill. The
o fficers of the Confederacy and i t s army, a f te r taking th e oath of a l le
giance, might have become the p o litic a l leaders of the re-admitted s ta te s .
Imagine the wonderful influence of General Leel He hated slavery. He
always counselled patience in righting the wrongs of the Southland. He
was worshipped by h is fellow Confederates. His influence would have been
enormous.
-41'
�Lincoln's idea of shipping a l l the Negroes back to Africa would have
proved a fa ilu re . Somehow thqp-must be integrated again in to the so cial
order. Some of the sta te s would have passed laws r e s tric tin g th e ir lib e r
tie s (as they ac tu a lly did) to such an extent th a t they would enjoy but
l i t t l e of the freedom granted them by the Emanciapation Proclamation, but
these laws would soon have been declared n ull and void by the Supreme Court.
L iteracy te s ts would have been required before voting privileges were
granted. These would have been rigged to favor white ill i t e r a t e s and de
bar Negroes. This, too, would soon have been abandoned on orders from
Washington. Other schemes would then have been te ste d . Hundreds of Negro
shools -were opened a f te r the C ivil War. In order to vote, a Negro could
have been required to have graduated from the primary department of one of
those schools and, of course, to have reached his 21s t birthday.
For some years, the number of Negro votes cast would have been
negligible but eventually, especially i f school attendance of children had
been made compulsory, the Negro votes would have been commensurate with
those of the w hites. Suppose the whites had attempted intim idation to pre
vent Negroes from voting. Supervision of elections by the cen tral govern
ment might have been required fo r a while u n til enough Negroes were elected
to office to protect the in te re sts of th e ir race. Many of the problems
faced by the South during the Reconstruction Period and a f te r , would not
have been solved by these changes, but there would have been few carpet
baggers, no wholesale ruin of sta te and lo cal governments, le ss rio tin g and
bloodshed - in a word, the horrors of the Reconstruction Period, followed
by the disfranchising of the whole Negro population would largely have
been avoided.
The Caste System.
A review of the previous chapter w ill show th a t f u l l white supremacy
.
came to the South about the turn of the century. The struggle between the
races abated and the South se ttle d down to re a l reconstruction. S tate
governments were s ta b iliz e d . Poverty prevailed everywhere, but industry
and agriculture gradually increased and well-being began to asse t i t s e l f .
Two aspects of th is "new c iv iliz a tio n " remained to plague future
generations.
1. Lynchings persisted although they gradually decreased.
there were nine Negroes who met a vio len t death from mobs, (97)
In 193&,
2. "Taxation without representation is tyranny" proved as true in
the 1920's as i t did in the pre-revolutionary period of our fo re -fath ers.
As soon as the white people obtained complete control of the le g is la tiv e ,
ju d ic ia l, and executive branches of the government, the Negroes were not
only segregated from the whites but were forced to assume an in fe rio r
sta tu s - a lower ca ste . By "caste" is here meant the separation of people
because of b ir th . In th is sense slavery is not necessarily a caste system.
Through the centuries men became slaves when vanquished in b a ttle . They
could be freed la te r and o fte r were. Sometimes they bought th e ir own
-
42 -
�freedom. In the United States there were many free Negroes prio r to the
C ivil War. In fa c t, the f i r s t slaves imported in to the Colonies were looked
upon as indentured servants. The excuse (but not the reason) fo r the im
portation was converting them to C h ristian ity . When th a t was accomplished,
the slave owner sometimes gave the slave his freedom. Often he found some
excuse to keep him. Many in te restin g examples may be noted.
A Negro, by the name of Anthony Johnson, was bought to Virginia about
.
1621. Later he was freed and imported five slaves himself, f o r which he was
awarded 250 acres of V irginia land. He was said to be the f i r s t Virginian
to hold a Negro slave for lif e - 1654.. Heretofore, they were considered
indentured servants, whose term of servitude was lim ited . In 1632, a law
was passed in the V irginia General Assembly defining "slaves" as imported
servants who were not C hristian. But the law was found not to be acceptable
because many slaves imported from the West Indies had been converted so the
law was amended so as to apply to servants whose native country was not
C hristian. Although the amended law ended a l l release from slavery because
of religion, freedom was often granted because of meritorious conduct.
For example, a f te r the Revolutionary War, the Virginia Legislature freed
a l l slaves who had "contributed toward the establishment of American Liberty
and Independence", (97a)
Every nation in the world has i t s "classes". Wealth, education, and
to some extent, length of time one's ancestors have lived in the neighbor
hood, separate a community in to classe s. Poor immigrants form, as a ru le,
the lowest c la ss. They are newcomers and may have l i t t l e money or education.
I f th e ir descendants become wealthy and educated, they may r is e to the
highest c la ss. Those who scorned to associate with th e ir ancestors may
become th e ir servants and employees. Thus, class d istin ctio n s changed
through the years in most countries of the world and especially in the United
S ta te s. By the tu rn of the century, the Iris h immigrants of the 60's were
no longer called "micks"; they were becoming leaders in the country. By
th a t time, the Ita lia n s had become the laboring c la ss. They were the "wops"
of th a t era and became a half-century la te r high class c itiz e n s .
But the Negroes became, by reason of th e ir race, a lower "caste".
Neither wealth, education, nor length of residence in the community could
a ffe c t th e ir "caste". They were forever "outcasts". At le a s t th is was the
d elib erate attempt of the p o litic a l and social leaders of th a t period.
The segregation movement sta rte d much e a r lie r in the North than in
the South because in the South slavery autom atically segregated the people.
In New York and Philadelphia, the whites began to ignore th e blacks in the
churches. The l a t t e r then withdrew and established th e ir mm churches
ra th e r than be hum iliated. In 1737, a segregated school was established
in New York City and one in Boston in 1320, but they were abolished in 1855
(probably a t the insistence of the a b o litio n is ts ) . (98)
In 1875, the C iv il Rights B ill of 1866 was amended so as to extend
equality of rig h ts of the two races to apply to common c a rrie rs , ju rie s,
th e a tre s , officers and teachers of schools, but in 1883 the b i l l was
- 43-
�declared unconstitutional. (99)
Supreme Court, dissentedl)
(Judge Harlan, the only Southerner on the
Tennessee has the c re d it of passing the f i r s t "Jim Crow" law in 1881.
Other sta te s followed, According to the amended C ivil Rights Law these
accomodations must be equal fo r both whites and blacks but the abrogation
of the law two years la te r gave the railroads a fre e r hand. Step by step,
the Negroes were excluded from white schools, th e atres, parks, playgrounds,
bathing beaches, assembly h a lls, restaurants (1906) , waiting rooms,
la v ato rie s, and even j a i l s . In 1915, South Carolina segregated te x tile
workers, pay windows, and stairways.
Of course, segregation could have been carried out so as to avoid
making outcastes of the Negroes. The separated f a c iliti e s could have been
made equal. Inasmuch, however, as the electo rate was almost a l l white,
much more public money was spent on white f a c iliti e s than black. For
example, the value of Negro school property was le ss than o n e-fifth th a t
of white school property from 1913 to 1932. In 1935, the Negro school
property in the South was valued a t 8$ of the to ta l school property, whereas
the Negro population was 30$ of the to ta l. From 1900 to 1930, teachers in
Negro schools received one-half the salary teachers in white school re
ceived. (101)
As a ru le , everything assigned to the Negroes - waiting roams,
restau ran ts, la v a to rie s, schools, parks, bathing beaches, were very in
f e r io r to sim ilar accomodations provided fo r the white people.
Every attempt was made to impress the Negro people with th e ir
in fe r io r ity . In court they were addressed by th e ir f i r s t names, whereas
the white people were addressed as H r,, Mrs., or H iss, followed by th e ir
l a s t names. In entering a home, Negroes were supposed to enter by the
rea r door and whites by the fro n t door. In court cases between Negroes
and w hites, many judges attempted to be im partial, but the ju rie s were a l l
white and ju stic e was next to impossible where the two races were involved.
In the sta te of F lorida, i t is said th a t no white man was ever executed
fo r rape of a Negress. The ju rie s ju s t would not bring in a v erd ict of
g u ilty .
�CHAPTER 3
THE TREl'iD TOWARD SCHOOL IHTEGRATIOH
The f i r s t h alf of the Twentieth Century proved to be a period of
prosperity fo r the South. The introduction of smoking among women g reatly
enhanced the tobacco industry. Textile m ills moved South where the cotton
was grown and where labor was cheap and labor unions few. The caste system
was very popular among the w hites. The Hegroes came to accept i t as natural
and rig h t, ju s t as they had accepted slavery. They had l i t t l e in te re st in
p o litic s . The growing prosperity in the South brought them more food, clo th
ing, and sh e lte r. After a l l , these are the main in te re st of most of us.
The Southern white people are, by nature, kindly disposed toward
Negroes. Having lived with them fo r some centuries, they knew th e ir short
comings and could allow fo r them. In case of sickness or poverty, there was
ap t to be some white person or society to look a f te r them.
No economic or social system is acceptable to every one. There were
white Southerners who hated the whole caste system. To them i t was un-Ameri
can and un-Christian. A Georgia judge prevailed on a number of Negroes in
his v illag e to qualify for re g istra tio n . When election day came not one was
allowed to vote. All were d isq ualified fo r one reason or another by the
election clerks.
Books were w ritten in the South dwelling on the e v ils of the system,
but no one paid much atten tio n to them. Ho new "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" appeared
to s t i r the conscience of the people.
Among the Hegroes, two factors sta rted to undermine the whole caste
system. The f i r s t was the higher wages and comparative freedom in the North.
Social b a rrie rs obtained in the North as in the South, A man’s se r
vants were expected to use the back door in going in and coming out of a
home. His f i r s t name was used in addressing him. He had, as a ru le , no
so cial intercourse with his employer. But the social s tr a tif ic a tio n did not
depend prim arily on race and was not fixed by law. A Negro, i f he was
e lig ib le , was accepted in a given class about as a white man would be. He
was not segregated on railroads and stre e tc a rs; he was admitted to th eatres
and restaurants i f he could pay the p rice; he shared a l l public parks with
the white man; he could serve as ju ro r; he could be elected to public o ffic e.
All th is comparative freedom became known more and more generally in the
South. To the Southern Negro i t must have looked mighty a ttra c tiv e .
The wage scales in the Morth were much higher. The re su lt iras a Negro
migration to the Horth which eventually assumed huge proportions. F illin g
the slums of the Northern c itie s , they often found economic conditions worse
than in the South. Furthermore, they found living expenses higher as well
as wages. Some turned back to the sunny South where the climate was more
endurable and the work not so hard, but most stuck i t out rath e r than be
trea ted as outcastes.
-45-
�The second fac to r was education. I t seems to have been the g rea test
obstacle to the successful operation of the caste system. In times past,
many attempts have been made to divide mankind into c a ste s. The planes of
separation have persisted for years and sometimes for centuries but eventual
ly they break down and disappear. The most notable example of the p e rs is t
ence of the system i s , of course, India. Twenty or t h ir ty centuries before
C hrist, the Aryan trib e s of Hindus invaded Northern In d ia. The caste system
developed through the centuries to keep the lig h te r skinned invaders from
mixing with the darker skinned original inhabitants, called Dravidians.
The p rie s ts , who devised the system, placed themselves (of course) in the
highest caste, with the t i t l e of "earthly gods" or Brahmans. Then came the
Kshattryas or fighting men, then the Viasyas or farmers who were looked
down upon 'by the upper castes, and fin a lly , the Sudra or servant caste.
The darker skinned Dravidians were a l l assigned to be Pariahs or
outcastes. Such a r t i f i c i a l divisions of mankind have been many times
attempted but never succeeded in p ersistin g century a f te r century as did the
Indian castes. Five centuries before C hrist, Siddhartha, the founder of
Buddhism, trie d to break the caste system. He said th a t the l i t t l e riv ers
a l l come together to form the Ganges, so the castes should a l l merge to
form the brotherhood of man. But Siddhartha not only failed to abolish the
caste system, he fa ile d to win India fo r Buddhism. M illions in China and
Japan were converted but few in India.
C hristian ity came to India as e a rly as 190 A.D. About 1800 the
P rotestants sent m issionaries. C hristians preached the brotherhood of man,
too. Jesus said to the Samaritan woman, "Give m to drink." She replied,
e
"How is i t th a t Thou, being a Jew,asketh drink of me, which am a woman of
Samaria?, for the Jews have no dealings with the Samaritans." The
Samaritans were outcastes to the Jews. They trie d to avoid them in every
way, wouldn't even pass through th e ir country i f they could help i t , y et
Jesus said to the Samaritan woman, "Give me to d rin k .", thereby ignoring
the caste b a rrie r. Yet India, a f te r centuries of C hristian teaching, found
the caste system s t i l l rig id as stone.
The B ritish government trie d to break i t . As the 20th Century dawned,
they estimated 60,000,000 "outcastes" or "untouchables". These poor crea
tures were allowed to perform only work not even f i t fo r servants scavengers, removers of night s o il . No Brahman p r ie s t would m inister to
them; as a rule they were not allowed to enter a Hindu temple. They could
not draw water from a public w ell, nor en ter a court of ju s tic e . In some
provinces they could not use the public roads nor build h u ts. They must
liv e under le a f awnings supported on poles. Back in 1854, the d irec to rs of
the East India Company recommended th a t "no boy be refused admission to a
government school or college on ground of caste", but the B ritish govern
ment counselled extreme caution because the caste system was p art of the
Indian re lig io n . S ixty-five years la te r , the Madras government found le ss
than &• of th e ir sohools would admit outcastes under any circumstances. (102)
?
<
I t remained for Mahatma Gandhi, in 1932, to in it ia t e the f i r s t
successful attempt to break down the Indian caste system. Under the benign
-
4-6—
�influence of the new Indian government, the work of "demolition of the caste
wall" is being carried on.
What has a l l th is to do with the IJegro problem in the South? The
lesson fo r Americans is tliat only in ignorance can the system succeed over
any length of tim e. The Indians s tr ic tly prohibited any education of the
outcaste. C iv ilizatio n - even the building of huts - was kept as f a r from
him as possible. Only as a savage would he submit to the fate of an out
ca ste . In Russia, the serfs were kept submissive by denying them education.
I t is true th a t in Soviet Russia today education is being promoted every
where, but the schools teach the people only "what is good fo r them".
For example, when S ta lin was demoted from hero to v illia n , a l l the
h isto ry books had to be revised. P rior to our C ivil War, Southern laws
forbid the education of the slave. When the law was evaded, the planters
were in danger. As mentioned above, the Turner's Rebellion, involving
sixty-one murders, was led by a flegro m inister educated by a white family.
After the insurrection was crushed, Virginia in 1331 passed a law denying
books to slaves. In the same year, Negro preachers were banned. (102a)
As soon as the C ivil War was over, the North sent hundreds of teachers
to work in Negro schools. The South aided and approved, for i f the Negro
must vote, he must be educated. When, however, the tab les turned a f te r the
Reconstruction Period and the Negro was denied the vote, and treated as an
outcaste, education only produced d iss a tis fa c tio n and b itte rn e ss . I t is
true th a t Negro education was very in fe rio r to the white, s t i l l they learned
the same histo ry - the same D eclaration of Independence - th a t a l l men are
created equal.
In the recent trouble in Montgomery, Alabama, the Ku Klux Klan burned
a f ie ry cross in fro n t of a Negro's home. He was seen to crane out and lig h t
h is cig arette in the flame of the cross. Eighty years ago, the sig h t of
the burning cross would have struck te rro r to the whole neighborhood.
Inherently, the caste system is based on the assumption of the race
su p erio rity of the higher c a ste . Before C ivil War days, many Americans
helieved th a t Negroes were a low type o f human being. After the war,
Northern p o litic ia n s assumed th a t the only difference between the races was
color and physical c h a ra c te ristic s. Recently, mental te s ts have been made
and books have been w ritten to study the average in tellig en ce quotient of
the two races.
For example, Henry E. Garret claims the equality not s c ie n tific a lly
proven but i s based on:
1.
2.
3.
i.
5.
Fundamental concepts of American government,
Teachings of C hristian brotherhood,
Sympathy for Africans struggling fo r freedom,
Revulsion against H itlerism ,
Communist dogma.
■1S1-
�He notes th a t no African race has ever:
a . Constructed an alphabet,
b. Created lite r a tu r e or science,
c . Produced a great man,
d. B uilt a c iv iliz a tio n . ( 104)
Many psychologists have concluded th a t there is l i t t l e or no measurable
difference due to race. Individuals of each race d if fe r so much th a t the
r a c ia l difference ( i f any) becomes hardly appreciable. (103) Others find
the reverse to be tru e . Probably a l l psychologists would admit th a t there
are thousands of Negroes more in te llig e n t than the average white man.
Thomas F u ller, a Negro who could neither read nor w rite, figured the
number of seconds in a man's li f e who had lived seventy years, 7 months and
7 days. The problem was given him by a noted mathematician by the name of
Zorah Colburn to te s t his in te llig en c e, When he accused the Negro of giving
the wrong answer, the l a t t e r rep lied , "Did you allow for the leap years?"
the mathematician admitted th a t he had forgotten to do so. Harry Hosier,
a Negro who could not read was accredited by Bishop Coke, in 1784, to be
one of the best preachers in the world. (104a)
C ertainly these men, together with hundreds of other Hegroes, had an
I . Q, greater than the average white man. Certainly Ralph Bunche, the great
a rb itra to r, Toussaint Louverture, the great S t. Domingo so ld ier, Dr. Carver,
the great b io lo g ist, Booker T. Washington, the great educator, stand f a r
above the average white man in in te llig en c e. The only question is whether
or not there are more thousands who are le ss in te llig e n t.
- 48-
�CHAPTER 9
GENESIS O THE SUPREI1E C U T DECISION
F
OR
I t was early July, 1908, In Abraham Lincoln's old home, S pringfield,
I llin o is , th a t a Negro was discovered in a room with two white g ir ls .
Whether he was in te n t on rape or robbery was never established. The fath er
of the g irls entered the room in time to prevent e ith e r, but he lo s t his
l i f e in combat with the in tru d er. Some time la te r a Negro was found sleep
ing near the premises. He was arrested on suspicion of being the murderer
of the fath e r. The t r i a l of the case was postponed s ix weeks by Judge
Creighton (a most respected man), perhaps because he feared the town was too
worked up to afford an im partial t r i a l . Then another crime occurred in
which a Negro raped a white woman. Again, a suspect was arrested . Although
these crimes committed by Negroes were quite in lin e w ith those committed by
whites during the same period, a race r io t ensued. I t was led by a woman
by the name of Kate Howard. For two days they were in control of the c ity ,
k illin g and wounding scores of Negroes, among whom two were lynched.
One
was a Negro who f ire d buckshot in to a crowd attacking his home. The mob
f in a lly yielded to the sta te m ilitia and Kate Howard was a rrested . She was
released on 54-000 b a il but committed suicide. All th is in the heme c ity of
the Great Emancipator!
The sto ry was w ritten up fo r the September 3, 1908, issue of the
Independent by William E. Walling under the t i t l e "Race War in the North".
But, for him, the publicizing of the shameful incident was not enough.
Something must be done to prevent its recurrence. He associated himself with
Dr. Henry Hoskowitz and a white social worker by the name of Mary W
.
Ovington. With the help of Oswald Garrison V illard, president of the New
York Evening Post Company, the three organized, on L incoln's birthday
February 12, 1909, the "National Association fo r the Advancement of the
Colored People". Among the fifty -th re e signers were some of the best-known
people in America - m inisters, college professors, w rite rs, so cial workers.
In 1957, the N.A.A.C.P. had a membership of about 350,000 - more than
h a lf of which resided in the South. I t is governed by a s ta f f of ninety
persons, of which 8$ to 12$ are white.
Their approach is threefold: L egislative, educational, and le g a l, (105)
The following cases, among many others, have been carried through the courts
by th e ir lawyers.
Donald Murray was refused admission to the University of Maiyland
Law School because he was a Negro. He carried the case to the S tate Court
of Appeals and won on the ground th a t the sta te maintained no Negro law
school. After graduation, he wrote an account of his experiences. I t was
very favorable to his classmates and the u n iv ersity . He was the f i r s t to
cross the color lin e , Lloyd Gains, a Negro, trie d to enter Missouri Univer
s ity , but the s ta te court turned him down. The U, S, Supreme Court reversed
the decision, but Gains gave up the fig h t and never went. Again, the
Supreme Court forced the admission of Ada Lois Sipuel and G. W McLaurin
.
-49-
�(1950, June 5th) into the University of Oklahoma. Texas, faced with the same
problem, trie d to se t up a Negro school overnight but was unsuccessful in
convincing the Supreme Court of any "equality". When G. W. Laurin entered
the University of Oklahoma, he was made to s i t ap a rt a t classes, eat apart
in the c a fete ria, liv e apart in the dormitory as i f he had some contagious
disease.
The doctrine of "separate but equal" had been established in 1896,
in the case of Plessy vs. Ferguson, A Negro by the name of Plessy attacked
segregation in in tra -s ta te railroad tr a in s . He lo s t his case on the ground
th a t the clause in the 14-th Amendment to the Constitution forbiding the
denying of any person the equal protection of the laws, was not infringed
provided the accomodations were equal. I t is in te restin g to note th a t in
th is case the segregated schools were quoted by the Supreme Court to i l l u s
tr a te the principle of "separate but equal".
F inally, in 1952, December, five cases (Kansas, Delaware, South
Carolina, D is tric t of Columbia and Prince Edward County, Virginia) were
submitted to the Supreme Court, again under the leadership of the N.A.A.C.P.
The Southern sta te s represented claimed th a t separate schools had been the
law of the land fo r many years; th a t equalization programs were doing away
with in e q u alitie s.
ments :
The decision handed down May 17, 1954, included the following s ta te
"...We come then to the question presented: Does segregation of
children in public schools solely on the basis of race, even
though the physical f a c iliti e s and other 'ta n g ib le ' factors may
be equal, deprive the children of the minority group of equal
educational opportunities? W believe th a t i t does.
e
" ...T o separate them from others of sim ilar age and q u alificatio n s
solely because of th e ir race generates a feeling of in fe rio rity
as to th e ir status in the community th a t may a ffe c t th e ir hearts
and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone.
"W conclude th a t, in the fie ld of education the doctrine of
e
'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational
f a c iliti e s are inherently unequal". (101)
To th is decision the Ju rists from both the North and South agreed.
The decision was U n a n i m o u s .
-50-
�References:
( 1)
()
2
(3)
(4)
(5)
( 6)
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
(7)
(8 )
(
)
(9)
( 10)
( 11)
( 12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
( 16 )
(16a)
(17)
(18)
(19)
( 20 )
( 21)
( 22 )
(22a)
(23)
(23a)
(24)
(25)
( 26 )
(27)
(23)
(29)
(30)
(31)
(32)
(33)
(34)
(35)
(
)
(37)
(37a)
(37b)
(33)
(39)
(40)
Punk & Wagnalls New Standard Bible Dictionary, 3^ revised ed ., p 854.
Fisher, History of the C hristian Church, p 232,
Estimated from Encyclopedia B ritannica, 13th E dition, subj: "Slavery"
The Great Events by Famous H istorians, Vol XI, p 83.
Funic & Wagnalls New Standard Bible Dictionary, 3^ ed itio n , p 856.
The Great Events by Famous H istorians, Vol XV, p 321, 322.
Saturday Evening Post, I960, December 3, p 84.
Larned History for Ready Reference, subj: "Slavery", P 2927.
The Negro in V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, P 24, 25, 38.
The Great Events by Famous H istorians, Vol XI, pages 88, 91.
Adventures of an African Slaver, Garden City Pub. Co., 1928, p 87-90.
The Negro in V irginia, Work Projects Administration, 1940, p 7.
Adventures of an African Slaver, Garden City Pub. Co,, pages 104-115.
"
" " "
"
"
» "
" , pages 106, 107
Katharine M. Jones, "The P lantation South" (1957), p 35.
»
"
"
"
"
«
" , pages 34, 222.
ii
u
ii
n
ii
it
" , P 84.
ii
it
u
ii
The Negro
Katharine
136, 152,
Katharine
1
1
n
ii
1
1
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
it
ii
n
ii
ii
ii
ii
ii
"
ii
f p 35 ^
, p 266.
f p 353 #
in V irginia, Works Projects Admr., 1940, pages 150 -153.
M. Jones, "The P lantation South" (1957) pages 52, 99, 127,
170, 171.
11. Jones, "The P lantation South" (1957) pages 275, 276
n
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
it
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
The Negro in
109 - 110.
Katharine M.
The Negro in
Katharine 11.
"
"
ti
1
1
n
1
1
ii
»
1
1
1
1
1
1
"
p 4,
p 273,
p 212 .
p 373.
V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, pages 101, 103,
Jones, "The Plantation South" (1957), p 35.
V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, p 90.
Jones, "The Plantation South" (1957), p 31.
"
"
"
"
, pages 140-142, 71-75.
1
1
ti
n
n
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
p 149.
p 34.
"
»
"
"
pages
1 7 - 21.
W. E. Woodward, "A Hew American H istory", p 477.
521.
504.
Charles W. Thompson, "The Fiery Epoch", 1830-1877, p 109.
1
1
1
1
n
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
p135,
1
1
1
1
n
"
"
"
"
" p 134. .
Encyclopedia B ritannica, subject! "Simon Cameron",
W E. Woodward, "A New American H istory", p 514.
.
Harper's Encyclopedia of 0. S . H istory, subject: "Sumter, F ort".
Burton J . Hendrick, "The Bulwark of the Republic", p 355, 356.
R. S. Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction", p 46.
William L. Langer, "An Encyclopedia of World H istory", p 784.
J . G. Randall, "Lincoln the President", Vol 2, p 131.
■ ii
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 p 131 j 132.
1 1
-51-
�(a)
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
(46)
(47)
(43)
(49)
(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)
(54)
(55)
(56)
(57)
(53)
(59)
( 60 )
( 61)
(6la)
(62)
(63)
(64)
(65)
( 66)
(67)
(63)
(69)
(70)
(71)
(72)
(73)
(74)
(75)
(76)
(77)
(73)
(79)
( 80 )
(81)
(32)
(33)
(34)
(85)
(36)
(87)
( 83)
(39)
(90)
J . G. Randall, "Lincoln the P resident", Vol 2, p 17.
..........................
” '■ p 148, 149.
P 143.
p 146.
p 156.
pages 160 - 163.
P 173.
pages 177, 178.
P 136.
R. S. Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction", pages 66, 67, 177.
11
n
n
11
11
n
11
p
4 ..
Carl Sandburg, "Abraham Lincoln", pages 331 - 854, paper ed itio n .
R. S. Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction"., pages 190, 191.
.........................................
■
'
P 49.
p 61, 62.
pages 176, 177.
p 121.
p 145.
P 244.
p 127.
p 129.
The Megro in V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, p 248.
R. S. Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction", p 153.
W. E, Woodward, “A New American H istory", p 534.
R. s . Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction' , p 140.
II
II
it
11
II
II
II
p 137.
II
II
II
II
II
it
11
p 211.
11
II
II
11
II
II
II
p 324.
11
II
II
It
11
11
II
p 126.
W. E . Woodward, "A New American History", p 5 3 7 .
II
11
11
II
II
II
II
pages 596, 597.
tl
It
II
II
ti
II
11
p 577.
II
II
II
tl
11
ti
II
pages 636 - 639.
R. s . Henry, "The Story of Reconstruction' , P 325.
tt
11
II
II
It
11
II
pages 339 - 342.
11
11
II
II
II
II
II
pages 491 - 492.
11
II
tl
II
II
11
II
pages 517 - 513,
ti
11
II
1?
II
II
II
pages 523 - 524.
II
II
II
it
ti
11
It
pages 559 - 560.
11
11
II
II
II
tl
tt
pages 529 - 530.
II
II
11
11
II
II
II
p 444.
ti it
II
II
II
It
II
p 450.
11
11
II
II
It
It
II
P 452.
11
11
It
II
II
II
II
p 526,
11
It
11
II
II
II
II
P 553.
n ti
II
II
II
II
It
pages 533, 591.
11
II
II
It
11
II
11
p 548.
Claude G. Bowers, "The Tragic Era" 9 pages 506 - 521.
Holland Thompson, "The New South", Yale Univ. P ress, 1919, p
"
"
" "
"
"
"
" , pages 10 -‘
21
11
11
11
11
n
11
11
11
_
, ,
> P 44.
-52-
�(91)
(92)
(93)
(94-)
(95)
(96)
(97)
(97a)
(93)
(99)
( 100)
( 101)
( 102)
(102a)
(103)
(104)
(104a)
(105)
Holland Thompson, "The New South", Yale Univ. Press, 1919, p 49.
•• "
"
" "
" , pages 50 - 53.
p 146.
P 138.
pages 130 132
G illin "Social Pathology pages 438, 439.
"
"
"
p 438.
The Negro in V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, pages 1 1 - 2 3 .
Annals of American Academy of P o litic a l and Social Science, 1956,
March, pages 1 - 4.
Harpers Encyclopedia of W S . H istory, subject: "C ivil Rights".
.
Burton J . Hendrick, "The Bulwark of the Republic", p 413.
"Segregation and the Schools", Public A ffairs Pamphlet, 209,
22 East 33th S tre e t, New York 16, Hew York.
Katherine Mayo, "Mother India", pages 150 - 157.
The Negro in V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, p 43, 77.
Anastasi & Foley, "Revised D iffe re n tia l Psychology", p 782,
Henry E, G arret, PhD, "Equality of the Races", pages 72 - 74, in
U. S. Hews and World Report, 1961, August 14.
The Negro in V irginia, Work Projects Admn., 1940, pages 52, 101.
Information Service, National Council of the Chruches of C hrist in
W S. of America, Vol 36, Ho. 8. Also see Independent 1908,
.
September 3d .
■53-
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
The Background of Integration by Dudley P. Babcock, July 1963. 53 pages.
Description
An account of the resource
Paper written by Dudley P. Babcock as a personal historical perspective on the history of slavery worldwide and particularly in the United States. "It is proposed here to give a very brief overview of these facts [historical and opinion] from an impartial point of view." Dudley P. Babcock was an Arlingtonian involved with the Arlington Council on Human Relations and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference working towards integration.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Dudley P. Babcock
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
1960s
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1963-7
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_2_1b
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/407ff7af83a9ae3b418c89da594e2099.pdf
23bc143d9ff1d3a73f64ed2ee92c49a0
PDF Text
Text
March 22, 1962
RESIDENCE OF .ARLINGTON COUNTY EMPLOYEES - as of 5-19--60
Arlington Co.
. Fairfax.Co.
..-Alexandria
3
5
6
2
94
41
8
158
55
9
Library-
78
8
1
4
Finance
30
7
2
3
1
Health
37
12
2
3
4
Insuections
27
9
i
Highway
76
20
25
10
4
Sanitation
84
6
20
24
12
Sewer
37
11
11
5
5
37
2
23
2
19
2
’29
7
12
6
5
5
4
9
6
2
4
2
2
3
2
12
4
5
i
3
10
2
1
12
226
3
98
77
1
67
personnel
Fire
police
V/ater
Public Utilities
Equipment
Child Care
Public Buildings
Civil Defense
Recreation & Parks
Real Estate Assessments
Welfare
Surveys
19
?35
2
2
16
Planning
1
11
11
4
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Residence of Arlington County Employees as of March 5, 1960. Document dated March 22, 1962.
Description
An account of the resource
Residence of Arlington County Employees as of March 5, 1960. Document dated March 22, 1962.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
unknown
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
1960s
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1962-3-22
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_11
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/9c0015103d71be5e1aa71296c915e973.pdf
fd2e69dd346a9c9e2e55c41d2245a32c
PDF Text
Text
A SAMPLE OF CENSUS TRACTS
Census Total
Tract Popu
Number lation
White
Negro
Other
Races
Owner
Occupied
White
N/White
Renter
Occupied
White
N/Whit e
Over
%
Over
%
Substandard Overcrowded
5
3916
3882
26
8
930
1
229
6
7,6%
6
2779
2774
2
3
619
1
222
0
7.2%
5.5%
7
5178
4872
281
25
981
30
637
42
8.5%
-
*8
1609
250
1358
i
44
189
18
130
47.2%
n
4990
49-4
3
13
1135
3
230
0
6.6%
13
7093
7080
3
10
1526
2
454
0
16,5%
14
3456
3392
26
38
475
5
701
7
22,9%
19
2925
2919
3
3
649
0
323
1
8.8%
22
3804
3773
17
14
289
0
975
ii
-
9,9%
24
3969
3662
262
45
491
56
799
27
-
5.2%
26
2987
2977
5
5
494
3
507
0
-
5.1%
28
4375
4352
3
20
690
1
655
2
-
5.9%
29
5994
5965
1
22
7
0
2120
8
17.5%
31
4522
48
4472
2
10
608
4
362
15.4%
30.8%
c
33
913
0
913
0
0
171
0
59
15.5%
20.0%
36
5088
5080
2
6
623
0
348
1
6,4%
Totals
for
163,401
Sr.
gl
35 C/T
154,172
8,590
69
3'
20.2%
-
5.7%
-
-
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Sample of Census Tracts
Description
An account of the resource
Sample of Census Tracts
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
unknown
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
undated
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_10
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/859e2f3ff293429e019e97ff26c4c7d8.pdf
56333ea0b52f98af1dcc18fcb3a03720
PDF Text
Text
ARLINGTON COUNTY, VIRGINIA
DEPARTMENT OF PERSONNEL
DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYEES PAY (2L-DES 1-6* BY RESIDENCE
Arlington
Depto of Public Service**
White
Colored
D.G.
Alexandria
73
179
7
42
16
4
Dept* of Rec. &
Parks
White
Colored
^4
J50
1
2
Fairfax
Others
34
9"-- — '^1.4^--31$ live
"'
24 — 41$ live
9
12^
’
12
15
*Normal maximum of Grade 6 is $4,940 a year
** Include the following divisions:
Water, Highway, Sanitation, Sewer, Equipment, Public Buildings and Surveys.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Distribution of Employees Pay Grades 1-6 by Residence, March 21, 1962. Produced by Arlington County Dept. of Personnel
Description
An account of the resource
Distribution of Employees Pay Grades 1-6 by Residence, March 21, 1962.: Produced by Arlington County Dept. of Personnel
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Arlington County Dept. of Personnel
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
1960s
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1962-3-21
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_9
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/eb2bea6fb3750014a7997a21d9db5853.pdf
e321d3bfd69a13bbf395d16a48616f54
PDF Text
Text
ARLINGTON COUNCIL ON HUMAN
5010 Little Falls Road
Arlington 7, Virginia
V
REPORT ON HOUSING IN ARLINGTON COUNT!
WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION TOWARD DISCRIMINATION TOWARD NEGROES
Arlington County is a part of the original ten mile square of the District of
Columbia which was retroceded to Virginia in 1846. It is slightly over 25 (2 5 .3 ) square
miles in size. It has, over the years, become progressively bound to the Metropolitan
Washington growth. It's economy and social life is closely relatative to the District
of Columbia and Federal employment. Naturally, Arlington derives its laws and institu
tions from the Commonwealth of Virginia. Locally it elects five County Board members
(a majority of whom are members of a non-partisan group, A.B.C.). Policy decisions are
administered through a county managerial system and sophisticated Civil Service proceedures. Wide civic use is made of the skills and interests of the citizenry. It is
fair to say that its local governmental proceedures are of the highest order.
Land use in 1959 was in the following order:
Residential
Institutional
Private Recreation
Vacant
43.6
1-5
2.4
9-1
Public Use
(Federal
Industrial
Industrial
and Right of Ways
- 1 7 .8 )
- Manufacturing
- Non-Manuf.
37-^
.2
3 .6
Presently proposed land use makes only slight modifications of the present structure.
largely small increases across; the board, 1 reducing vacant and public utility lands,
by
Population Tables:
1940 -
57,040
white
non-white
51,998
5,042
91.2$
8 .8 $
1950 - 135,449
white
non-white
1 2 8,780
6 ,6 6 9
95-1$
4 .9 $
i960 - 1 6 3,401
white
non-white
154,172
9,229
94.6$
5-5$
The i960 census provides the factual basis of changes in racial composition of the popu
lation that have been readily observed in the Metropolitan area over the past 10 years,
namely that while the population of the Metropolitan area was steadily growing and al
though growth was numerically greater in the suburbs, the proportion of non-white resi
dents in the District of Columbia was increasing rapidly while that of the surrounding
suburb was declining. Of the total increase in the region between 1940 and 1950, 77-6#
was white and 22.4$ was non-white. In 1950, 54$ of the regions white population and
17 $ of the non-white lived in the suburbs.
In Arlington the proportion of white and non-white were 95-1$ and 4.9$ respect
ively in 1950 compared with 9 1 .2 $ and 8 .8 $ in 1940. In i960 the white population of
Arlington increased by only 2,560, a number less than would be achieved by natural in
crease (excess of births over deaths) alone. Given a constantly expanding economy and
increasing Federal employment in the region, bringing both white and non-white into the
area, the marked concentration of non-whites in the center city, reflects accurately
the restrictive real estate practices employed in the suburbs as well as the limited
supply of housing for low and middle income families in these sections.
�-
2-
Figures from the i960 census provide the following profile of housing characteristics
in Arlington County.
Housing Units
Owner Occupied
White
Non-white
Renter Occupied
White
Non-white
Available vacant
For rent
For sale only
Other vacant
,
- 56 9^9
- 2 2 ,6 1 2
(
- 2 1 , 181).
- 1 ,1 2 8
- 31,8 8 6
30,971
915
2,039
-
259
11
(2
Housing units occupied by non-white
Housing conditions Total
All units
Sound
Deteriorating
Delapidated
1 ,7 8 0
All units
Sound
Deteriorating
Dilapidated
56,9^9
5k,k32
2,208
309
Persons Fer Room
All occupied housing units
1.01 or more
5^,498
2,3^1
2,01(3
1 ,5 9 0
3C8
1+5
Housing units occupied by
non-white
2,Ob3
1.01 or more
533
In brief:
(over 25$)
15 f of overall substandard housing occupied by non-white
o
23 $ of overcrowded housing is occupied by non-whites
(Please see Sample of Census Tracts)
�-3A study of Census Tracts suggests that as Arlington has developed its residen
tial character of high-median income, the Negro population has been generally confined
to certain areas. These areas have become identifyable as such. Of the 35 Census
Tracts in Arlington listed below, the following numbered ones have 6 or less Negroes
living therein: #1, #6, #10, #11, # 1 3 , # 1 9 , #20, #21, # 2 6 , # 2 8 , # 30 , # 3 2 , # 3 6 .
The following numbered tracts have 12 or less Negroes living therein: #12, #23,
#29The following numbered tracts have 2h or less Negroes living therein: #2,
# 1 5 , #2 2 , # 3 5 .
The following numbered tracts have 36 or less Hegroes living therein: #3, #5,
#17The following numbered tracts have 48 or less Negroes living therein: #16, #27•
Out of 35 Census Tracts, 27 have less than 48 Negroes residing therein. These figures
would tend to confirm the rigidity of housing opportunities for non-whites in this ex
panded and transient community.
The residential development of Arlington has been strongly undergirded by F.H.A.
support. The following figures show:
1960 F.H.A.
1961 F.H.A.
- Home Mortgages for new houses
- Home Mortgages for new houses
401 for $6,297*500
1 - 3 for $6,827*800
|1
Regarding Home and Property Improvements:
1960 F.H.A.
- Home improvements - 9 ^ for $1,1^5*107
1961 F.H.A.
- Home improvements - 7 ^ for $ 8 5 2 ,8 3 0
The Veterans Administration figures indicate that since 19 V* it has administered 7*219
home loans in Arlington.
Real estate transactions tend to control occupancy. It has been stated publically
that a real estate broker would lose his membership in the Realty Board should he sell
or rent a home to a customer whose race would change the character of the neighborhood.
Several real estate brokers have commented that they would prefer an open market and
said there were no printed rules requiring discrimination. Documentation is sketchy.
The Virginia Real Estate Manual, June 1959* quotes the golder:. rule "Do unto others as
you would have them do unto you". The Code of Ethics of the National Association of
Real Estate Boards:
Article 5 - "The Realtor should not be instrumental in introducing into a
neighborhood a character of property or use which will clearly be
detrimental to property values in that neighborhood.." (pg. b2)
The neighborhood is defined in the following manner, "the neighborhood is that
part of an area or community whose physical characteristics are influenced by a similar
ity of its residents from the standpoint of economic and social tendencies. Generally
a neighborhood consists of houses of similar utility, similar quality, the same age.
The residents are within the same income group and have the same cultural, racial, and
national background and usually predonimately one religious faith." Offhand it would
appear as though the real estate groups had not heard of pluralism in America before.
In Arlington it would appear that cultural and national backgrounds mean little.
Covenants restricting Jews are still found. Most important lines are economic and
racial. The first is natural, the latter appears to be drawn by design and pressure.
One must distinguish between the realtor and the developer. The latter mainly
serves the high income group in growing Northern Virginia. There is the emphasis on
exclusiveness which caused the following statement bo be included in a subdivision
brochure:
�-U -
"Said property shall never he sold, leased, conveyed, or otherwise
disposed of to anyone not of the Caucasian race as defined by the
laws of the State of Virginia."
Testimony is readily offered by non-whites who have been turned away from developments
in Northern Virginia.
For the moment, the more critical need is in regard to single housing and apart
ment units as Arlington has almost exhausted its potential for new developments. The
situation at present offers little ground for creative change or mobility of the pre
sent attitude of local government, real estate brokers and citizens continues.
The results limiting non-white housing to unoficially prescribed areas contributes
to the fact that many Negroes serving the needs of Arlington are unable to reside in
the county at the level of their choice. In an informal survey of Negro professionals
it is revealed that their residences are as follows:
Estimated Total
Doctors
Dentists
Lawyers
Teachers
Live in Arlington
b
2
1
9
9^
28
3
i
t
.
Live outside Arlington
1
1
5
66
These statistics contain many unknown factors plus personal choices, but generally the
pattern of lower professional income such as teachers salaries and the unavailability
of lower to moderate income housing in Arlington for non-white is supported.
Another view is given in the statistics regarding employees of Arlington County.
Report of Public Service at grades 1-6 (normal maximum for grade 6 - $^,9^0 per annum):
31$ of the white workers live outside the county
Ll$ of the non-white workers live outside the county.
It seems accurate to say that housing for all persons receiving less than $5,000 per
year is not plentiful. However, it is even more restricted in the case of Negroes.
An informal survey in i960 by the Department of Personnel revealed that 37$ of county
employees lived outside the county. In addition to the professional and county em
ployees who commute to Arlington, there are the thousands of Negro demestics and com
mercial workers who increase the transportation burden of Metropolitan Washington, as
they journey across the same bridges as their employers at roughly the same hours.
Late in 1961 a minimum standards housing ordinance was adopted by the County Board,
after careful citizen preparation. In brief, it permits the county to enforce certain
standards. It is administered by the Department of Health and has provisions for ap
peals. Regarding eviction and re-settlement, the county manager is expected "to have
made every reasonable effort to insure that the occupants have been offered alternative
safe decent living quarters within the occupants means in Arlington County." The ap
peals mechanism is in the process of being instituted but under the existing situation
there is little hope for finding new low income opportunities for non-whites whose
landlords are unwilling to invest sufficient capital to raise the standards, or non
white owners who themselves are unhble to do so. As a result, the necessary physical
standards have received their due attention and at present there is no official county
or citizens committee or staff operations concerned with housing needs. We can expect
housing standards to rise and the marginal income families to be forced out of resi
dence here.
�-5Negro resources in meeting the problem are few as such. There are, in Virginia,
area and state wide. Real Estate Broker Associations composed entirely of Negroes.
These groups may serve the local non-white need, but have no apparent opportunity to
expand their services to effect residential patterns.
One Negro contractor in Arlington has in the past ten years found increasing
solid financial support from local lending agencies. In addition to presenting work
able plans, however, the proposed project ought to be undertaken within the proscribed
Negro area. Desirable land outside of Negro areas has been consistently unavailable
to him. Thus a developer in the Negro areas alone may assume greater risks because of
its varied standards of housing. In order to undertake low income housing in or even
beyond Negro land, urban renewal powers are necessary. These powers are presently
under debate as regarding renewal of older commercial areas in Arlington.
The above referred to contractor has constructed approximately 100 houses (averag
ing about $18,000) and 77 apartment units in Arlington. He has never had to advertise
for clients and continually must turn down requests from potential clients coming from
outside the area to serve the government.
Another opportunity for guiding social change is the Housing Information Service
coordinated by the National Capital Clearing House for Neighborhood Democracy. Owners
or renters who believe in open occupancy may notify this group of their interest. At
present only four homes are listed in Arlington.
A year ago in 1 9 61 , a Good Neighbor Campaign was undertaken by area religious
groups and assisted by the National Capital Clearing House for Neighborhood Democracy
in Metropolitan Washington. A total of 5 , ^ 9 signed cards were received, pledging that
the individual would welcome into their neighborhood "any person of good character, re
gardless of race, color, creed, or national origin." Northern Virginia returned 1,131
pledges of which 335 came from residents in Arlington. The director for the campaign
stated, "the results demonstrated that Washington suburbs are far more ready for open
occupancy housing than has generally been thought."
Local planners have not been unaware of the Metropolitan situation which indicates
a rapid pressure for Negro housing around the District. A retiring county planner who
served Arlington for seven years and had responsibilities for the land use plan stated,
in regard to the anticipated Negro move to the suburbs, "People should be more mature
about this instead of taking an ostrich-like attitude about it."
The reason for planners concern generally may be seen in the unpublished results
of a reputible private planning group's estimate as to the population of Metropolitan
Washington in 1 9 8 0 .
Conclusion I - Negro population in I98 O:
Total 1,025,000
5^0,000 living in D. C.
U8 5 ,0 0 0 living in suburbs
Conclusion II - Total
955,000
510,000 living in D. C.
Uj 5 ,0 0 0 living in suburbs
i-
The difference between these two conclusions rests largely on estimates concerning inmigration and birthrates. When one compares these estimates to the present location of
the non-white population, the future course is clear to see.
�-
6-
In i960 the non-white population of Metropolitan Washington was bS9,b6Q with
Ul8,6l5 living in the District and 80,773 presently living in the suburbs. The simple
limits of space, availability of housing in D. C. are not difficult to assess. Conse
quently the pressure upon the suburban communities will be intense.
Given the facts that there are population pressures out of the District - that
at present Arlington's habits tend to discriminate against open occupancy, that real
estate and commercial acceptance of Negroes is confined roughly by census divisions,
that if the land use plan became implemented without change in assumed racial boundaries,
there will be less opportunities for Negroes to live in Arlington than at present. If
these facts are accurate, the processes of social change will probably differ from that
which has taken place in less sensative areas of community life. In fact, it would
appear that without political understanding and the support of interested private groups
that this will be a far more difficult social change than has been faced before.
In assessing political leadership, the record in Arlington over the past five
years reveals, in our opinion, the fact that when a crisis occurs, the leadership res
ponds and generally with wisdom and insight. However, it seems traditional that ad
vanced planning has not been provided for. We seem to be a community that disinterestedly
moves along until challenged. For example, the committee to keep our schools open was
an effective citizens response to the threat of closing the public schools. Although
court ordered desegregation has been effectively accomplished and one school district re
vised to permit Negro children to attend formerly white junior high schools, the complete
desegregation and provision for equality of education has not received leadership. Arl
ington still maintains a segregated senior high school for Negro children having academic
opportunities well below the three other senior high schools. Desegregation of lunch
counters was accomplished with sound county leadership in the middle of an unplanned
crisis. Having solved that, there has been no continuing effort for directing bi-racial
opportunities in the county, to learn of and listen to the complaints and circumstances
of its citizenry. One instance of a decision without pressure was the County Board's
motion to desegregate the recreational facilities. Protests had been lodged in the
past by certain citizen's groups but the motion itself arose in the conscience of res
ponsible leadership.
In brief, leadership tends to respond to crisis rather than to plan in advance
according to principle. The result is the emergence of small pressure groups and a
large segment of apparently disinterested citizens.
If Arlington is to play a responsible part in the transition of the Metropolitan
area, its political leadership will have to equal the time spent previously on property
zoning with time spent concerning human rights and discrimination. Time must be spent
on the merits of urban renewal and responsible provisions for low income housing pro
bably privately encouraged. Community opinion regarding open occupancy and the inherent
principles will need official guidance. Small groups such as the Arlington Council on
Human Relations can best fulfill their roles by providing information and opportunity
for discussion. Certain of the churches in Arlington will undoubtedly provide leader
ship of the spirit as it involves social change. We can only hope that the need will
be gracefully met by leaders in every avenue of community life and that together, Arl
ington may become a community in which the whole nation may take pride.
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Report on Housing in Arlington County with Particular Attention Toward Discrimination Toward Negroes by Arlington Council on Human Relations, April 1962
Description
An account of the resource
Report on Housing in Arlington County with Particular Attention Toward Discrimination Toward Negroes by Arlington Council on Human , April 1962 6 pages.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
American Council on Human Relations
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
1960s
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1962-4
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_3
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/c5b8b4b47737b73b3d4987066f146af3.pdf
37df307c60b4bd7cabf4fc1e4eaf1e27
PDF Text
Text
A REPORT TO THE ARLINGTON CHURCHES OM RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IK BOWLING ALLEYS
AMD MOTELS
The Arlington Council on Human Relations committee on Recreational Improvement
has questioned the Bowling Alleys and Motels In Arlington County to find out
their policy regarding racial discrimination. We are passing along our find
ings to the churches of the county, in hopes that they may he of use to them.
Should anyone encounter reception at a bowling alley or motel that indicates
a change in policy from that listed here, we would appreciate hearing from
them. Please call Mrs. Sally Anderson, KE 6-9357MOTELS
No Racial Restrictions
Will not accept Negroes
Ainsworth Motel
Holiday Inn
Marriott Motel Hotel
Merrimac Motel
Arcadia Motel Hotel
Arlington Motor Court
Arva Motor Hotel
Clarendon Hotel Court
Iwo Jima Motor Hotel
Hotel Fifty
Pentagon Motel
Will accept Negroes in
Integrated Groups
Airport Motel
Park Arlington Motel
South Gate Motor Hotel
BOWLING ALLEYS
No Racial Restrictions
Will not accept Negroes
Pentagon Recreation Center
Colonial Village Bowling Allen
PLA-MOR Lanes
SKOR-MOR Lanes
Rosslyn Ten PinBowling Center
Will accept Megroes in
Integrated Groups
Clarendon Bowling Center
Arlington Bowling Center
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
A Report to the Arlington Churches on Racial Discrimination in Bowling Alleys and Motels, early 1964
Description
An account of the resource
A Report to the Arlington Churches on Racial Discrimination in Bowling Alleys and Motels, early 1964.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
unknown
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
1960s
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1964
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_2
-
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/2f4ecf71ad8a1fad6c69c50d69bfeff9.pdf
11402ee3c2db6bffb781a03f43257a7d
PDF Text
Text
THE
NEGRO
CITIZEN
IN
ARLINGTON
A N e g ro in A rlin g to n , V irg in ia c a n , lik e a n y o f th e w h ite r e s id e n ts o f o u r c o m m u n ity , c a ll a n e f fic ie n t
F i r e D e p a rtm e n t if h is h o u s e is b u rn in g . H e ca n s e n d h is c h ild to s c h o o l a n d know th a t a n a l e r t o f f ic e r w ill
s to p tr a f f i c i f n e e d be so th a t h is s o n o r d a u g h te r m a y m a k e a s a f e s t r e e t c r o s s in g . H is w ife c a n b u y m e a t
a t th e n e a r e s t s u p e r - m a r k e t w ith th e a s s u r a n c e th a t it h a s b ee n in s p e c te d a n d is f a i r ly w eig h e d a n d p r ic e d .
In m o s t m a t t e r s th e A rlin g to n N e g ro liv e s o u t h is d a y s w ith th e s a m e e le m e n ts o f r i s k a n d w ith th e s a m e
m e a s u r e of c iv ic p ro te c tio n th r e a te n in g h im on th e one h an d an d s u p p o r tin g h im on th e o th e r a s i s th e c o m
m o n lo t o f th e r e s t o f u s in m o d e rn s itu a tio n s . B ut th e r e a r e a r e a s o f h is lif e w h e re b e in g a N e g ro m a k e s a
d if f e re n c e in h is d a y s . B e lie v in g th a t m a n y p eo p le m a y be u n a w a re o f th i s d if f e r e n c e , th e A rlin g to n C o u n ty
C o u n c il on H um an R e la tio n s w ould b r in g th e fo llo w in g f a c ts to th e a tte n tio n o f c o n c e rn e d p e o p le .
1.
If an A rlin g to n N e g ro m a n w a n ts to ta k e h is fa m ily out to d in n e r , h e w ill h av e to go to th e D i s tr ic t o f
C o lu m b ia to fin d a r e s ta u r a n t o f h ig h q u a lity w h e re th e y m a y b e s e a t e d . T h e y w o u ld be tu r n e d aw ay
fro m a l l th e b e t te r e a tin g p la c e s in A rlin g to n . If h is fa m ily is in th e m o o d f o r an in f o r m a l m e a l, h e
m a y buy food to c a r r y h o m e a t a n A rlin g to n D r iv e - in R e s ta u r a n t b u t h e c a n n o t e x p e c t th e k in d o f c u r b
s e r v ic e w h ich m a n y w h ite f a m ili e s e n jo y a t th e en d o f a b u s y d a y . It i s n o t c l e a r to w h at e x te n t r e s t a u
r a n t r e s t r i c t i o n s a r e r e l a te d to th e le g a l b an on m ix e d s e a tin g in p u b lic a n d to w h at e x te n t th e y a r e r e
la te d to th e p r e ju d ic e s o f w h ite p a t r o n s .
2.
If a n A rlin g to n N e g ro w a n ts to s e e a m o v ie , h e m u s t a l s o go to W a sh in g to n . He ca n n o t w a lk to a n e ig h
b o rh o o d m o v ie o r go to an y D r iv e - i n T h e a tr e in th e A rlin g to n a r e a b e c a u s e th e y a r e a l l c lo s e d to
N e g r o e s . N o r c a n h e go to a p u b lic bo w lin g a lle y o r s k a tin g r in k . H e ca n n o t s to p f o r h is c h ild r e n to
h av e pony r id e s a t a pony lo t.
3.
H ig h ly q u a lifie d p e rs o n n e l d ir e c t th e A rlin g to n r e c r e a ti o n p r o g r a m f o r N e g ro e s b ut w h e r e a s th e p la y
g ro u n d s an d s u m m e r r e c r e a t i o n p r o g r a m s fo r w h ite c h ild r e n a r e lo c a te d in th e n e ig h b o rh o o d s w h e r e
w h ite c h ild r e n li v e , o n ly tw o s m a l l p la y g ro u n d s a r e a v a ila b le f o r N e g r o e s . B oth o f th e m a r e in a d e q u a te
an d th e l a r g e s t o n e , w h e re f u l l - s c a l e b a ll g a m e s m ig h t be p la y e d , i s in th e s o u th e r n ti p o f A rlin g to n ,
in a c c e s s ib le to th e la r g e n u m b e r o f N e g ro youth in N o rth A rlin g to n . N e g ro c h ild r e n liv e v e r y n e a r
s o m e o f th e la r g e p la y in g fie ld s d e s ig n a te d fo r w h ite c h ild r e n . T h e y c a n o n ly w a tc h f r o m th e s id e
li n e s . If fr ie n d ly y o u n g s te rs c a ll o u t to th e m to jo in th e g a m e s , th e y m u s t ig n o re th e in v ita tio n o r a c
c e p t it w ith th e r i s k th a t th e y m ig h t b e s e n t aw a y , o r , fa ilin g to le a v e , m ig h t be ta k e n to th e p o lic e
s ta tio n .
4.
A N e g ro m a n m a y r u s h h is c h ild to A rlin g to n H o s p ita l f o r e m e r g e n c y tr e a tm e n t o r f o r h o s p ita liz a tio n
in th e n o n - s e g r e g a te d p e d i a tr i c s w a rd a n d h e m a y go h im s e lf a s a n o u t- p a tie n t o r a s a b ed p a tie n t in
th e N e g ro w a rd . B ut w hen h is w ife is re a d y to g iv e b ir t h to t h e i r b a b y , he c a n n o t ta k e h e r to th e c o m
m u n ity h o s p ita l w h e re w h ite b a b ie s a r e b o rn . H e m u s t ta k e h e r m i le s aw ay to a h o s p ita l in th e D is tr ic t
o r in A le x a n d ria . P e r c h a n c e h e r b ab y c a n 't w ait f o r th e W a sh in g to n h o s p ita l, th e N e g ro m o th e r w ill
b e a tte n d e d a s a n e m e r g e n c y c a s e in th e A rlin g to n H o s p ita l but s h e ca n n o t th e n b e p la c e d in th e m a t e r
n ity w a r d . She w ill be put in th e g e n e ra l w a rd f o r N e g ro e s w h e re s h e m ig h t b e e x p o s e d to a n y o n e o f
a v a r i e ty o f in fe c tio u s d i s e a s e s . T h e g e n e ra l w a rd f o r N e g ro e s a c tu a lly b e c o m e s a re c e iv in g w a r d
f o r a l l o v e rflo w p a tie n ts b e c a u s e th o u g h a N eg ro m a y n o t be p la c e d in s e c tio n s o f th e h o s p ita l d e s ig n a
te d f o r w h ite s , i f th e w h ite s e c t io n s a r e fu ll, th e w h ite p a tie n ts n e e d in g s p a c e a r e p la c e d in th e N eg ro
w a r d . T h is w a rd is not a s c a r e f u lly c o n tro lle d f o r v i s i t o r s a s th e m a te r n ity w a r d i s , m a k in g it th e
m o r e u n s u ita b le f o r p o s t- d e l iv e r y c a s e s .
5.
M any N e g ro e s in A rlin g to n ow n t h e i r h o m e s a n d h o m e o w n e rs h ip i s a th in g o f s p e c i a l p r id e to th e m .
M any o f A rlin g to n 's N e g ro c i tiz e n s a r e n a tiv e r e s id e n ts o f th e c o u n ty an d liv e o n p r o p e r ty w h ich w as
ow ned by t h e i r p a r e n t s o r g r a n d p a r e n ts . B ut w hen young N e g ro e s m a r r y , e v e n th o u g h th e y a r e w e ll
e d u c a te d an d h av e good jo b s , th e y c a n n o t fin d , in A rlin g to n , h o m e s w h ich th e y m a y b u y o r la n d w h e re
N e g ro e s m a y b u ild . T h e r e is l i ttl e r e n t a l p r o p e r ty a v a ila b le to th e m . So th e y m u s t le a v e n eig h b o rh o o d s
w h e re th e y h a v e f r ie n d s , m u s t le a v e c h u rc h e s w h e re th e y h av e r o o ts an d r e s p o n s ib il iti e s , a n d w h e th e r
th e y lik e it o r n o t, m u s t liv e in W a sh in g to n . O ld e r N e g ro e s s it p r e c a r io u s ly on t h e i r f r o n t p o r c h e s in
A rlin g to n b e c a u s e th e y fe e l th a t e x p a n sio n o f p u b lic b u ild in g in th e p a s t h a s b ee n a t th e e x p e n s e o f
N e g ro la n d a n d th e y ■v/onder w hen s o m e new e x p a n s ion w ill ta k e t h e i r p r o p e r ty a n d le a v e th e m h o m e le s s .
6.
It is th e u n c e rta in ty ab o u t s o m a n y a s p e c ts o f h is life th a t i s tr y in g f o r a N e g ro in A rlin g to n .
Som e
y e a r s ag o h e knew e x a c tly w h a t h is lim ita tio n s w e r e . He d id n 't lik e b e in g lim ite d b u t h e knew w hat
to e x p e c t. Now h e is t i r e d o f b e in g unknow ing ab o u t h is s t a t u s .
T h e N e g ro know s th a t m e r i t h ir in g p e r m its h im to a p p ly f o r a n d , if h e is q u a lif ie d , to r e c e iv e a C iv il
S e r v ic e job in th e A rlin g to n c o m m u n ity . He d o e s n o t know to w hat e x te n t r a c i a l p r e ju d ic e m a y in flu e n c e
th e d e c is io n s o f th e d e p a rtm e n t h e a d who is re s p o n s ib le f o r h is p ro m o tio n s .
T h e N e g ro know s th a t b y F e d e r a l L aw h is c h ild r e n a r e now g u a ra n te e d p u b lic s c h o o l e d u c a tio n on a
n o n - s e g r e g a te d b a s i s .
H e d o es n o t know how lo n g it w ill b e b e fo re N e g ro e s in A r lin g to n c a n e x p e c t
th a t w ithout in d iv id u a l c o u r t a p p e a ls , t h e i r c h ild r e n w ill a l l be a c c e p te d in n e ig h b o rh o o d s c h o o ls
ju s t a s o th e r c h ild r e n a r e .
T h e s e c e r t a in lim ita tio n s a n d u n c e rta in o p p o rtu n itie s w h ich d a ily c o n fro n t N eg ro c itiz e n s in A rlin g to n a r e
fe lt by th o s e w ho p a r tic ip a te d in th e s u r v e y , to b e a b lig h t upon th e c o u n ty an d a b u rd e n upon a l l o f i t s r e s i
d e n ts . How ch a n g e an d im p ro v e m e n t m a y b e s t b e b ro u g h t ab o u t w ill be a m a tte r o f co n tin u in g c o n c e r n to
th o s e p e r s o n s o f s e v e r a l r a c e s a n d o f v a rio u s fa ith s w ho c o m p o se th e m e m b e r s h ip o f th e A r lin g to n C o u n cil
on H um an R e la tio n s .
�
https://projectdaps.org/files/original/e1bfe59f2f1737242a10a8ef44f71e0b.jpg
4e92a31f7105b63ade483494edb5dd47
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Broadside: The Negro Citizen in Arlington published by American Council on Human Relations
Description
An account of the resource
Broadside: The Negro Citizen in Arlington published by American Council on Human Relations.
Format
The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource
pdf
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
RG 123, Records of the Rock Spring Congregational United Church of Christ [UCC]
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
American Council on Human Relations
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
undated
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited.
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
123_1_2_1_1