1 20 83 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/cc46355a574eeee5ddbbb285d9f6bb99.pdf 95205b67a416dfcef550307a699de351 PDF Text Text HOWARD U N I V E R S I T Y P u b l i c E d u c a tio n fo r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a fro m 1670 t o 1950 A D is s e rta tio n s u b m it te d t o th e F a c u l t y o f t h e G ra d u a te S c h o o l of HOW ARD U N I V E R S I T Y in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e d eg ree o f M A ST K R O F .iR T S D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a ti o n by O p h e lia B ra d e n T a y lo r W a s h in g to n , D. C. J u n e , 1951 �■iCKNOV/l^DG^gNTS S i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d t o ti le v a r i o u s t e a c h e r s a n d r e s i d e n t s o f t h e C o u n ty who s u p p l i e d b a c k g ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n ; a l s o , t o t h e A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l s , who a i d e d i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f i m p o r t a n t s c h o o l r e c o r d s a n d d o c u m e n ts . �Ta BLE OF CONTENTS C h a p te r I. P ag o INTRODUCTION S ta t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m P u rp o se of th e I n v e s ti g a ti o n P r e v io u s I n v e s t i g a t i o n s D e f i n i t i o n o f Term s S co p e a n d L i m i t a t i o n s II. TI® AWAKENING PERIOD, 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 9 N eg ro E d u c a ti o n P r i o r t o 1570 E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n T e a c h in g P e r s o n n e l T e a c h e r E d u c a ti o n a n d Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs T e ach ers' S a la r ie s S c h o o l Term s P o p u l a t i o n a n d E n r o llm e n t III. THE PERIOD OF RECOVERY, 1 9 0 0 -1 9 1 6 S c h o o l B u ild in g s The T e a c h in g .F orce O r g a n iz a tio n a l I n f lu e n c e s E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r tu n it y IV . THE imuiLY Ki&lP ERA, 1 9 1 7 -1 9 3 6 C o m p a ra tiv e S u r v e y s Bond I s s u e s P a re n t-T e a c h e r Leagues P e r C a p ita o o a ts Im p ro v e d T e a c h e r S t a t u s E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a N eg ro H ig h S c h o o l V. THE La TSR KEV? ERA, 1 9 3 7 -1 9 5 0 P o p u l a t i o n C h an g e s The S c h o o l E x p a n s io n I s s u e P e r C a p i t a C o s ts The B u i l d i n g P ro g ra m Im p ro v e d T e a c h e r S t a t u s The HAACP C o u r t C ase 1 1 4 4 7 8 11 11 24 27 29 30 31 33 34 43 45 47 49 50 57 59 64 65 66 67 74 78 80 85 91 92 93 96 �V I. EVALUATION OP THE STUDY Summary F i n d in g s C o n c lu s io n s BIBLIOGRAPHY 104 104 105 111 112 APPENDICES T a b le T a b le I - S a la r y S c h e d u le , A p r il 1924 I I - U n ite d S t a t e s P o p u l a t i o n S ta tis tic s T a b le I I I - V ir g in ia P o p u la tio n S ta tis tic s T a b le IV - A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty P o p u l a t i o n S ta tis tic s L i s t o f I n te rv ie w s 119 121 122 �CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION S ta t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m V ith in t h e p a s t tw o y e a r s , A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty p u b l i c s c h o o l s h a v e becom e t h e s u b j e c t o f much i n t e r e s t e d d i s c u s s i o n a n d s p e c u l a t i o n th r o u g h n a t i o n - w i d e p u b l i c i t y e v o l v i n g fro m th e f i g h t f o r e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s among N e g ro e s an d w h ite s w ith in th e c o u n ty . On S e p te m b e r 6 f 1 9 4 9 , a c o u r t t r i a l , i n i t i a t e d b y t h e . i r l i n g t o n B ra n c h of t h e N a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d vancem ent o f C o lo r e d P e o p l e , w as b e g u n t o e s t a b l i s h l e g a l l y t h e r i g h t o f N eg ro p u p i l s to e q u a l e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity . The w r i t e r w as i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s , t h e f i f t h such le g a l a c tio n f o r e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s in th e S ta te o f V ir g in ia s i n c e 1 9 4 6 ,1 a n d becam e e v e n m ore d e s i r o u s o f m a k in g a h i s t o r i c a l s tu d y o f t h e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s s i n c e s h e w as s i t u a t e d i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty an d w as aw are o f t h e many s i d e s o f t h e p r e s e n t c o n t r o v e r s y . P erh ap s th e i n t e r e s t a r o u s e d may b e b e s t e x p r e s s e d b y t h e s e q u e s t i o n s : On w h at b a s i s h a s p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s b e e n p r o v id e d ? W hat 1 N o te : I n 1 9 4 8 , X in g G e o rg e , G l o u c e s t e r a n d S u r r y C o u n ti e s w e re u n d e r c o u r t o r d e r t o e q u a l i z e s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s , an d C h e s t e r f i e l d C o u n ty w as i n t h e p r o c e s s o f e r a d i c a tin g d i f f e r e n t i a l s in te a c h e rs ' s a l a r i e s . �- 2- w e re some o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s ? What w e re t h e q u a n t i t y an d q u a l i t y o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s ? The a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s w i l l p e r h a p s be o f m ore v a l u e t o t h i s s t u d y i f t h e r e i s in c l u d e d a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f i m p o r t a n t g e o g r a p h i c a l an d s o o i a l a s p e c t s o f t h e c o u n ty w h ic h i n f l u e n c e t o no l i t t l e d e g r e e th e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n o f N eg ro p u p i l s . To u n d e r s ta n d t h e s i t u a t i o n o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty r e q u i r e s a n e x p l a n a t i o n , a l s o , o f t h e p o s i t i o n o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty i n t h e s t a t e o f V irg in ia , p lu s a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e e n v iro n m e n ta l f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g its p o p u la tio n . T h i s c o u n ty i s t h e s m a l l e s t o f one h u n d re d V i r g i n i a c o u n t i e s , an d t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d , w ith a n a r e a o f tw e n t y - s e v e n s q u a r e m i l e s . I t i s u n iq u e i n many r e s p e c t s b e c a u se o f i t s p ro x im ity t o th e n a t i o n ’ s c a p i t o l . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y u r b a n an d a r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a f o r g o v e rn m e n t e m p lo y e e s w hose w ork c a r r i e s th e m a c r o s s t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e o f t h e P o to m ac R iv e r t o W a s h in g to n , D. C. I t i s th e s e a t of m any l a r g e h o u s in g p r o j e c t s a n d o f f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s w h ic h b o th d ra w upon t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia p o p u l a t i o n f o r w o rk ers. W ith t h e g r o a t i n f l u x o f r e s i d e n t s who m i g r a t e d t o t h e c o u n ty d u r i n g W orld War I I , th e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n h a s d o u b l e d . H ov/aver, t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n h a s re m a in e d c o n s t a n t , e x c e p t �-3 - f o r som e s l i g h t f l u c t u a t i o n d u r i n g t h e w ar y e a r s . w h ite p o p u l a t i o n i s c o s m o p o l ita n i n n a t u r e . The As th e w h ite p o p u la c e h a s i n c r e a s e d , so h a s i t s f a c i l i t i e s . A t th e sam e t i m e , f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e N egro h a v e becom e r e s t r i c t e d , d ue t o th e c o n f i s c a t i o n of p r o p e r t y by t h e f e d e r a l g o v e r n me n t f o r t h e b u i l d i n g o f t he Navy A nnex, t h e P e n ta g o n , o th e r a g e n c ie s . and 1'any TTegro f a m i l i e s w e re f o r c e d t o l i v e i n t r a i l e r c am ps u n t i l l ow r e n t p r o j e c t s w e re c o n s t r u c t e d . The o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s o f N eg ro a d u l t s i s t y p i c a l o f 'W a s h in g to n , D. C ., Y /ith g o v e rn m e n t w o r k e r s o f lo w e r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , d o m e s tic t / o r k e r s an d l a b o r e r s i n t h e m a j o r i t y . The " S o c i a l S u r v e y " o f t h e c o u n t y h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t "N e g ro e s c o m p ris e a s u b s t a n t i a l f r a c t i o n o f th e p o p u l a t i o n , o n e v iiic h n o t o r i o u s l y i s t h e m o st u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d , a n d a s a r e s u l t , one w h ic h h a s t h e g r e a t e s t num ber o f s o c i a l p r o b le m s .2 I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o m e n tio n , t o o , t h a t i n c o m p a r is o n w i t h o t h e r n e a r b y m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s s u c h a s F a i r f a x C o u n ty a n d A le x a n d r i a C i t y i n V i r g i n i a , a n d M ontgom ery a n d P r i n c e G e o rg e s C o u n ti e s i n M a r y la n d , A r l i n g t o n 's e d u c a t i o n s y s te m h a s b ee n c o n s i d e r e d s u p e r i o r . Its s c h o o ls a r e c o m p a ra b le t o t h o s e o f t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia , i t s t e a c h e r s t h e h i g h e s t p a id i n th e S t a t e , and i t s e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s g £}r. 33. H . J a rm a n , C h a irm a n , "T he S o c i a l S u r v e y , " Mi; e o g ra p h e d R e p o r t , D ecem b er, 1 9 4 6 , p . 3 . are �-4 - q u i t e m o d e rn . f i r s t in i t s I n f a c t , t h e "D enny R e p o r t" p l a c e s i t su rv e y o f e d u c a tio n ,3 T h is i s t h e b a c k g ro u n d i n w h ic h th e p a t t e r n o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i s s e t i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , and fro m w h ic h t h e s t a t e m e n t c f t h e p ro b le m e m e rg e s : "■ 'h at m a jo r f o r c e s w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e N eg ro i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty fro m 1870 t o 1 9 5 0 ? " P u rp o s e o f t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n The t w o - f o l d p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y m ig h t t h e n b e c la im e d a s x l ) a n e f f o r t t o b r i n g t o l i g h t , an d t o s e t ( f o r t h i n c o n c is e f a s h i o n , t h e u n iq u e m a jo r f a c t o r s w h ic h w e re r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n f o r th e N eg ro i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty o n t h e e l e m e n t a r y an d s e c o n d a r y le v e ls ; (2 ) t o p r o v id e a s t u d y w h ic h m ig h t s u p p ly b a c k g ro u n d m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a n y f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h m ig h t t a k e p l a c e i n t h i s a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n . P r e v io u s I n v e s t i g a t i o n s S in c e t h i s s tu d y c o n s i d e r s a l a t e r p e r i o d , t o t h e a u t h o r ’ s k n o w le d g e , t h a n a n y p r e v i o u s h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h i n N eg ro e d u c a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a a n d i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t i t s h o u ld i n c l u d e a r e v i e w o f p r e v i o u s s tu d ie s in t h i s a r e a , i n o rd e r to p o in t o u t w hat t h i s s tu d y 3 R e p o r t o f t h e V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n . V i r g i n i a P u b l i c S c h o o l S y s te m . R ichm ond: D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e a n d P rin tin g , p . 74. �-5 - ad a s to th e f i e l d o f e d u c a tio n a l h is to ry * The m o s t r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e N eg ro i n t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a a r e tw o . The f i r s t w as b y H erm io n e L lo y d , "A H i s t o r y o f t h e P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n o f t h e N e g ro i n V i r g i n i a , ’' ^ c o v e rin g th e h i s t o r y o f t h e N eg ro fro m 1 6 1 9 , w hen s l a v e r y w as i n t r o d u c e d , t o t h e a b o l i t i o n p e r i o d ; t h e n , fro m 1860 t o t h e w r i t i n g o f th e t h e s i s i n 1956. I t g a v e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e w ork o f th e f o l l o w i n g r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s w h ic h a t t e m p t e d t o e n l i g h t e n t h e N e g ro : The P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u rc h , th e I e t h o d i s t s , t h e Q u a k e r s , F r e s h m e n 's B u r e a u , a n d t h e A m e ric a n L i s s i o n a r y A s s o c ia tio n . A se c o n d in v e s t i g a t i o n b y A lb e r t B ro o k s, e n t i t l e d "The E d u c a tio n o f N e g ro e s i n V i r g i n i a P r i o r t o 1 8 6 1 ,” 5 * c o n s i d e r e d o n ly a p o r t i o n o f t h e ti m e o f t h e L lo y d t h e s i s , a n d fro m a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f v ie w , i t e x p la in e d th e u n i que c o m b in a tio n s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a s y s te m o f e d u c a t i o n f o r r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y f o r N e g ro e s i n V i r g i n i a b e f o r e 1 8 6 1 , B o th s t u d i e s w e re H erm ione L lo y d , "A H i s t o r y o f t h e P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n o f th e N eg ro i n V i r g i n i a . " U n p u b lis h e d M a s te r s T h e s i s , Wash i n g t o n , D. C .: Howard U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 6 . P p . i / 7 0 . 5 A l b e r t B ro o k s , "The E d u c a tio n o f N e g ro e s i n V i r g i n i a P r i o r t o 1 8 6 1 ." U n p u b lis h e d P a s t e r s T h e s i s , W a s h in g to n , D. C .: Howard U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 8 . F p . 7 3 . �- 6- h e l p f u l i n g i v i n g a b a c k g ro u n d f o r t h e w r i t i n g o f t h i s re s e a r c h p a p e r. The tw o m o s t v a l u a b l e i n q u i r i e s t o t h i s a u t h o r w ere made b y s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . S u p e rin te n d e n t F l e t c h e r Kemp’ s m a s t e r s ’ t h e s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d th e h i s t o r y o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a fro m 1870 t o 1 9 3 6 . He d i v i d e d h i s s t u d y i n t o tw o p e r i o d s , fro m 1670 t o 1 9 1 7 , and fro m 1917 t o 1 9 3 6 .6 He d i s c u s s e s p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e s, a d m in is tr a tiv e o rg a n iz a tio n and ch a n g es, and e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s in th e c o u n ty , i t was a g e n e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h no s p e c i a l e m p h a s is on t h e e d u c a t i o n o f N eg ro p u p i l s . The o t h e r d i s s e r t a t i o n b y Leon w. B row n, f o r m e r C le r k o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l s , w as t h e m o st r e c e n t o f th e above s tu d ie s . I t w as a h i s t o r y o f t h e s c h o o l s y s te m o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a fro m 1870 t o 1 9 4 4 .7 The h i s t o r y o f t h e g ro w th o f t h e c o u n ty w as a d u p l i c a t i o n of th e Kemp p a p e r i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l o h a n g e s , p o p u l a t i o n an d e n r o l l m e n t o f t h e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 1 7 , b u t i n t h e b F l e t c h e r Kemp, "The H i s t o r y o f P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a , 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 3 6 ." U n p u b lis h e d T a s t e r s T h e s i s , W a s h in g to n , D. C .: A m erican U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 3 7 , Pp. v i / 75. 7 L eon • b ro w n , " H i s t o r y o f t h e G row th an d F in a n c in g o f t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l S y ste m o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 4 4 . U n p u b lis h e d a s t e r s T h e s i s , a s h i n g t o n , D. C .: G eo rg e ? a s h ii;g to n U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 4 5 . P p . W ? 2 . �-7 - l a t e r o n e , 1 9 1 7 -1 9 4 4 , i t d i f f e r e d fro m t h e e a r l i e r i n q u i r y i n t h a t e m p h a s is w as c e n t e r e d i n t h e p e r i o d 1 9 3 4 -4 4 , and i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e h i s t o r y o f f i n a n c i n g w as d i s c u s s e d i n some d e t a i l t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d c f t h e i n v e s t i g a tio n . I l l s w as a g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t a l s o . A sum m ary o f t h e r e v i e w o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h o s e o f L lo y d a n d B ro o k s w e re h i s t o r i e s w h ic h d e a l t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n o f N e g ro e s i n t h e e n tir e s ta te o f V irg in ia . The Kemp and Brown t h e s e s c o n s id e re d th e o v e r a l l h i s t o r y of e d u c a tio n i n A rlin g to n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a . The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h c o v e r e d an e v e n l o n g e r p e r i o d o f t i n e , b u t i t w as a s p e c i a l s t u d y o f N eg ro e d u c a tio n . T h is c h a p t e r w i l l p o i n t o u t many c h a n g e s i n th e c o u n ty e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m w h ic h t h e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s may n o t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o f o r e s e e . D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms N e c e ssa ry t o a c l e a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h i s a w o rk in g k n o w led g e o f te r m s i n v o l v e d . t h e w ord d e v e lo p m e n t i s s tu d y i s I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n t a k e n t o m ean a d v a n c e m e n t. A n o th e r te r m of im p o r ta n c e i n t h i s r e s p o o t i s t h e w o rd i n f l u e n c e , w h ic h u s u a l l y i m p l i e s t h a t a n a c t i o n o r a c t t o u c h e s o r a f f e c t s i n a d i r e c t o r a n i n d i r e c t m a n n er som e o t h e r a c t i o n o r a c t . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e te r m I n f l u e n c e i s u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h t h e te rm f o r c e . �- - S co p e o f t h e S tu d y The s c o p e a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y i n c l u d e t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n o f t h e N eg ro fro m i t s i n c e p t i o n i n 1870 t o t h e y e a r 1 9 4 9 . I t i s lim ite d t o t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n fro m d o c u m e n ta ry s o u r c e s an d h i s t o r i e s a v a i l a b l e i n A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a a n d W a s h in g to n , D. C . , s t a t e m e n t s o f o l d r e s i d e n t s o f t h e s e c t i o n an d n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e s . As f e r t i l e a f i e l d o f s tu d y a s e d u c a tio n a l h i s t o r y m ay b e , l o c a t i o n o f c e r t a i n d o c u m e n ta ry e v id e n c e p r e s e n t e d a p ro b le m . W h ile r e p o r t s fro m t h e l o c a l s c h o o l b o a r d i n m ore r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e b e e n a v a i l a b l e , e a r l i e r r e p o r t s w ere fe w a n d v e r y l i m i t e d i n i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e N e g ro . o f th e P r im a r y s o u r c e s u s e d w e re : A c ts assem b ly o f V i r g i n i a . s t a t u t e s an d r e c o r d s o f l e g i s l a t i o n , r e c o r d s an d a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f th e s u p e r in te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n o f V ir g in i a , r e c o r d s and m i n u te s o f t h e s c h o o l b o a r d o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , m i n u te s an d r e p o r t s o f c i v i c and e d u c a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s , a l l n e w s p a p e rs t h a t c o u ld be f o u n d , a n d i n t e r v i e w s v / i t h an d s ta te m e n ts o f o ld r e s i d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , and p r i n c i p a l s . S e c o n d a ry s o u r c e s o f v a l u e i n s u p p ly in g b a c k g ro u n d an d c o m p a r a tiv e m a t e r i a l s w ere g e n e r a l h i s t o r i e s o f t h e p e r i o d , s t a t e h i s t o r i e s , p e r i o d i c a l s , s t u d i e s a n d s u r v e y s on p u b - �-9 l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e N e g ro , a n d r e p o r t s o f e d u c a t i o n a l c o m m is s io n s , a n d t h e U . S . O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n , The y e a r 1870 w as ohoBen a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h i s s t u d y b e c a u s e i t m a rk ed t h e b e g i n n in g o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e N eg ro i n V i r g i n i a . The b o d y o f t h e s tu d y i s d iv id e d i n t o th e fo llo w in g p e r io d s : P e r i o d - 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 9 . I . The A w akening T h i s c h a p t e r r e v ie w s t h e s i t u a t i o n o f N eg ro e d u c a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a th r o u g h t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n E ra . I t e x p l a i n s f a c t s c o n c e r n in g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h p r o v id e d a d u a l s y s te m o f e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s a n d w h i t e s i n t h e S t a t e o f V i r g i n i a . T h i s p e r i o d was f i l l e d w ith g r a v e s o c i a l an d ec o n o m ic p ro b le m s w h ic h w e re r e f l e c t e d in th e p o p u la tio n , e n r o llm e n t, a t t e n d a n c e , t e a c h e r s t a t u s , s a l a r i e s an d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a l l o f w h ic h h a d v a r y i n g e f f e c t s u p o n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . o f R e c o v e ry - 1 9 0 0 -1 9 1 6 . I I . The P e r io d The e a r l i e r p e r i o d was c o n c e r n e d w ith t h e b e g i n n in g s o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n . In t h i s p e rio d V i r g i n i a came i n t o i t s own pow er s o c i a l l y , e c o n o m ic a lly , p o l i t i c a l l y , and e d u c a tio n a lly . g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d . P u b l i c e d u c a t i o n becam e T h is i n f l u e n c e w as h e l p f u l , a n d e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty made r e l a t i v e l y o u t s t a n d i n g p r o g r e s s i n c o m p a ris o n w ith o t h e r c o u n t i e s i n t h e s t a t e , a l t h o u g h t h a t p r o g r e s s w as s t i l l b e lo w a n y a d e q u a te s t a n d a r d . �- III. - The E a r l y h e a p E r a - 1 9 1 7 -1 9 3 6 . W ith t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f F l e t c h e r Kemp i n 1917 a s S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l s , t h e r e b e g a n a s i g n i f i c a n t e r a o f p u b lic e d u c a t i o n w h ic h w as t o l a s t u n t i l 1 9 4 9 . T h is c h a p t e r a tte m p ts to e x p la in th e changes b ro u g h t a b o u t in th e e a r l i e r y e a rs of h is a d m in is tra tio n . The s u r v e y o f A r lin g to n S c h o o ls an d t h e b e g i n n in g o f a n e x p a n s i v e b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m i n d i c a t e d t h e b e g i n n in g o f p r o g r e s s w h ic h w as t o c o n t in u e t o th e p re s e n t d ay . IV . The L a t e r Kemp E r a - 1 9 3 7 -1 9 5 0 . The l a s t c h a p te r o f t h e s tu d y e x p la in s t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s of e d u c a t i o n i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty i n t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f M r. Kemp’ s te r m o f o f f i c e . I t r e f e r s t o f a c t s c o n c e r n in g th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o l o r e d s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n 1 9 3 7 , a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m a n d a w id e n in g o f e d u c a ti o n a l o p p o rtu n ity . �- - CHAPTER I I THE AWAKENING PERIOD, 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 9 N eg ro E d u c a ti o n P r i o r t o 1870 T h is c h a p t e r c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w ith t h e i m p o r t a n t a n d f a r - r e a c h i n g l e g i s l a t i o n w h ic h a f f e c t e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty d u r i n g t h i s p e rio d . S in c e t h i s i s a f i r s t s t u d y o f th e N eg ro i n t h i s c o u n t y , i t a t t e m p t s , a l s o , t o p o i n t o u t t h e p l i g h t i n w h ic h t h e N eg ro fo u n d h i m s e l f d u r i n g t h e P e r i o d o f R e c o n s t r u c t i o n fro m 1 8 6 9 t o 1876 a n d t h e y e a r s a f t e r w a r d up t o 1 8 9 9 , w hen V i r g i n i a , a s a p a r t o f t h e S o u th , becam e in d e p e n d e n t o f n o rth e rn in f lu e n c e s . P r i o r t o t h e C i v i l W ar, t h e N eg ro h a d no r i g h t s a s a c itiz e n . a lth o u g h h i s p r e d ic a m e n t h ad b e e n d i s c o v e r e d b y h u m a n i t a r i a n s who h a d a t t e m p t e d t o a l l e v i a t e t h e co n d i t i o n s , t h e end o f t h e w ar f o u n d h im i n a v e r y d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n , n ew ly f r e e d , w i t h o u t m eans f o r a l i v e l i h o o d and g e n e r a l l y i n n e e d o f s y m p a t h e ti c h e l p . The o n ly medium th r o u g h w h ic h h e c o u ld e s t a b l i s h h i m s e l f a s a f u l l - f l e d g e d c i t i z e n w as th r o u g h e d u c a t i o n . Two a g e n c i e s w h ic h s t r o v e t o m e e t t h i s c h a l l e n g e w ere t h e A m erican M i s s i o n a r y a s s o c i a t i o n a n d F re e d m a n 's B u r e a u . The A m e ric a n M is s i o n a r y a s s o c i a t i o n w as o u t s t a n d i n g i n i t s �- - e f f o r t s a t o r g a n i z i n g s e c o n d a r y an d h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n i n p r i v a t e s c h o o ls o f t h e S o u th , w h i l e F r e e d n e n ’ s B u re a u w as th e c o s t n o ta b le i n e x e r tin g i t s in f l u e n c e i n V irg in ia * D u rin g t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e w a r , s c h o o l i n g o f c o l o r e d p e o p l e b e g a n vdien c o l o r e d r e g i m e n t s w e re fo rm e d i n t h e F e d e r a l -vrmy a n d v/hen r e f u g e e s w e re c o l l e c t e d w i t h i n fe d e ra l lin e s .1 The R e v e re n d R . L*. U a n ly o f R ic h m o n d , who w as S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f C o lo re d S c h o o ls i n V i r g i n i a u n d e r t h e F re e d m a n ’ s B u re a u d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s , e x p l a i n e d t h a t w h e n e v e r t h e s e r e g i m e n t s r e m a in e d i n c a a p f o r a n y l e n g t h o f t i m e , t h e y w e re p r o v id e d w ith " r e g i m e n t a l s c h o o l s " un d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n o f th e c h a p l a i n w ith s u c h a s s i s t a n c e a s h e n ee d ed * A tte n d a n c e w as v o l u n t a r y , b u t e m b ra c e d m o st o f t h e y o u n g e r men* A s s i s t a n t t e a c h e r s w e re p r o v id e d by c h a r i t a b l e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f t h e n o r th * I n d ic a tiv e of th e f a c t t h a t e v o n d u r i n g t h i s tim e N e g ro e s r e a l i z e d th e v a l u e o f a n o d u o a t i o n , t h e s o l d i e r s p o o le d t h e i r e f f o r t s an d b u i l t w i t h t h e i r own h a n d s a ru d e s c h o o l - h o u s e , w h ic h s e r v e d a l s o f o r p r a y e r - m e e t i n g s a n d r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s i n b ad w e a th e r* S uoh s c h o o l s w ere nu m e ro u s i n V i r g i n i a a t A l e x a n d r i a , F o r t 2 l o n r o e , H am pton, N o r f o lk a n d P o r ts m o u th , * 2 V i r g i n i a D e p a rtm e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n . A n n u a l r e p o r t s o f t h e G u p - r in te n d o n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i n g ..ic h m o n d : D i v i s i o n o f i u r c h a s e a n d P r i n t i n g , 1 8 7 9 -8 1 , p . 1 2 9 . 2 I b i d . , 1 6 7 9 - 6 1 , p . 129 . �-1 3 - A t t h e end o f t h e C i v i l A a r, A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , t h e n known a s A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty 3 becam e a r e f u g e f o r n e w ly e m a n c ip a te d N e g r o e s . The s e c t i o n o f t h e c o u n ty w h ere t h e y r e s i d e d w as known a s F re e d m a n ’ s V i l l a g e . I t had p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a p a r t o f t h e K o b e rt 3 . Lee K s t a t e . Now t h e a r e a i s known a s t h e W orld " a r I s e c t i o n o f A r l i n g t o n N a t i o n a l C e m e te ry . F re e d m e n ’ s V i l l a g e w as t h e f i r s t g o v e rn m e n t h o u s in g p r o j e c t o f i t s k in d i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , d i f f e r i n g fro m p r e s e n t h o u s in g p r o j e c t s o f t h e a r e a o n ly i n s t y l e an d i n ; c a t e r i a l s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . C o lo n e l 3 1 i a s L . G re e n e i s c r e d i t e d w i t h a s s i s t i n g t h e IJ e g ro o s t o becom e s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g , a s t h e v i l l a g e w as s u r r o u n d e d b y fa rm l a n d s w h ic h t h e I n h a b i t a n t s c u l t i v a t e d . T h o r e , m anyw orked a s b a r b e r s , t e a m s t e r s , f a r m e r s o r s e r v a n ts. The v i l l a g e e v e n h a d i t s s h o p p in g c e n t e r , w ith s t o r e s , h o s p i t a l , s c h o o l a n d c h u r o h o s a l l f r o n t i n g on a s t r e e t m ore t h a n a f o u r t h o f a m i le i n l e n g t h . 4 H is s C h a r i t y Bowen w as t h e f i r s t t e a c h e r i n t h e s c h o o l s o f th e v illa g e . N o te : ( .A r lin g to n C o u n ty w as C o u n ty u n t i l by A ct o f t h e A ssem b ly A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n t e r I I a n d C h a p t e r 111 w i l l u s e t h e known a s A le x a n d r i a o f 1920 I t w as c h a n g e d t o w ith A le x a n d r i a C i t y . C hap nam e A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty ) . 4 Tire B un. C e n t e n n i a l M ag azin e S e c t i o n , A r l i n g t o n , V i r g i n i a , A u g u st 3 0 , 1 9 4 6 , p . 1 0 . �-1 4 - I n t h e s e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e e d u c a t i o n o f N e g ro e s i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e c h u rc h , a n d i n t h i s a r e a , s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith t h e W e sley Z io n C h u rc h , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e R e v e re n d R ic h a r d T h o m p k in s. The f o l l o w i n g e x c e r p t fro m t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e c h u rc h i s q u o te d a s r e v e a l i n g t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c h u r c h an d s c h o o l: " F o r some tim e t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n w o rs h ip p e d i n F re e d m e n ’ s V i l l a g e , u n t i l t h e y b e g a n t o s c a t t e r . A l a r g e n um ber o f t h e m em bers s e t t l e d i n a n a r e a known l a t e r a s C o n v a l e s c e n t Camp. T hey h o ld p r a y e r m e e ti n g s an d r e g u l a r c h u r c h s e r v i c e s i n t h e home o f I '.r s . a n n a J o n e s an d h r . H enson Thomp s o n u n t i l Iv'.rs. Anna J o n e s made a v a i l a b l e t o them a s m a l l fra m e b u i l d i n g on h e r p r o p e r t y , i n w h ich i s s V. T h o m p k in s, d a u g h t e r o f t h e R e v e re n d R ic h a r d T h o m p k in s, t a u g h t s c h o o l . I t w as th r o u g h th e b e n e v o le n c e o f J r s . A m u J o n e s t h a t t h e f i r s t c h u ro h home w as p r o v id e d i n t h i s com m unity f o r th e c o n g re g a tio n . The f i r s t b u i l d i n g e r e c t e d on t h i s s i t e w as a v e r y hum ble fra m e b u i l d i n g w h ic h w as ta k e n down i n F reed m o n ’ s V i l l a g e a n d r e b u i l t h e r e . I t w as r a t h e r c r u d e and w as b u i l t o u t o f t w e l v e - i n c h b o a r d s . I n t h i s room t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n w o r s h ip p e d on S u n d a y , h e l d i t s p r a y e r an d b u s i n e s s m e e tin g s a t n i g h t , an d p u b l i c s c h o o l was h e l d d u r i n g th e w eek d a y s . They o c c u p ie d t i d e b u i l d i n g u n t i l 18e7 when th e y l a i d t h e c o r n e r s t o n e f o r t h e s e c o n d c h a p e l . . . T h is b u i l d i n g w as c o m p le te d i n 1E09 an d w as c a l l e d Lomax C h a p e l o f t h e i . S . Z io n C h u r c h ." 5 The s t u d y t h u s f a r r e v e a l s tw o t h i n g s a b o u t N eg ro e d u - 0 "T he H i s t o r y o f Lomax A. Id* IS. Z io n C h u r c h ." g r a p h e d R e p o r t , p a g e s u n n u m b e re d ). (mimeo �-1 5 c a t i o n b e f o r e 1 8 7 0 : 1) n e g r o e s , when g iv e n a n o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s c h o o l i n g , d i d n o t h e s i t a t e t o a v a i l th e m s e lv e s of t r a i n i n g e v e n i f t h e y h a d t o b u i l d s c h o o l s w i t h t h o i r own hands. 2) E a r l y s c h o o l i n g w as c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h and had th e s a n c tio n o f th e c h u rc h . w h a te v e r t r a i n i n g a n d i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t w as r e c e i v e d b y N e g ro e s fro m F r e e d n e n * s B u re a u m u s t h av e s e r v e d t o e n c o u r a g e t h e i r d e l e g a t e s t o t h e f i r s t G e n e r a l A ssem b ly i n 1 8 6 7 - 6 8 , h e l d i n A le x a n d r i a C i t y . T h e se r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a r r i v e s w ith a g e n e ra l d e s i r e t o b e t t e r to e l o t of th e N e g ro i n a l l r e s p e c t s . T h e i r e n t h u s i a s m w as s h o r t - l i v e d , h o w e v e r, f o r t h i s p ro v e d t o be t h e b e g i n n in g o f o n e of t h e m o s t t u r b u l e n t p e r i o d s f o r t h e N e g ro , s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y . Up t o t h e tim e o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n , F r a n c i s H . P i e r p o n t , e x - g o v e r n o r o f W est V i r g i n i a , h a d h e l d t h e t h r e a d s o f g o v e rn m e n t t o g e t h e r . s ta te The s i t u a t i o n o f t h e o f V i r g i n i a now w as one o f c o m p le te ec o n o m ic d e m o r a l i z a t i o n , o o u p le d w i t h t h e i n e s c a p a b l e p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o f " c a r p e t b a g g e r s ” a n d " s c a l a w a g s " o f th e N o r th . W o rst o f a l l w as a n a l m o s t i l l i t e r a t e p o p u la tio n o f N eg ro es, n e w ly f r e e d , i n n e e d o f a s s i s t a n c e , a n d i n t e n s e l y d i s l i k e d b y a l a r g e se g m e n t o f t h e w h ite r a c e . S u ch w as t h e s i t u a t i o n when a l a r g e num ber o f r e g i s t e r e d N eg ro v o t e r s , who h a d �-1 6 - g a i n e d t h e i r v o t i n g p r i v i l e g e s th r o u g h th e p a s s a g e o f th e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n A c ts o f M arch 2 a n d M arch 2 8 , 1 8 6 7 , a p p e a r e d t o fra m e a new c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h is g r o u p o f r e g i s t e r e d v o t e r s c o n s i s t e d o f 5 4 .8 # o f th e t o t a l num ber o f v o t e r s a t th e G e n e r a l A s s e m b ly .6 A lth o u g h t h e a c t u a l num ber o f v o t e r s fro m A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as n o t d e t e r m i n e d , i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s i z e a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N e g ro e s i n t h e A ssem b ly r e s u l t e d fro m th e m i g r a t i o n o f o o lo r e d s e t t l e r s t o F re e d m e n f s V i l l a g e i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . The q u e s t i o n c f e s t a b l i s h i n g p u b l i c s c h o o ls p ro m p te d much d e b a te on t h e p a r t o f t h e C o n s e r v a t iv e P a r t y . T h e i r f e a r s w e re m u l t i p l e a n d p o s s i b l y a c a r r y - o v e r fro m e a r l i e r o p p o s itio n to p u b li c e d u c a tio n . They w ere o p p o s e d t o c h a n g in g t h e e a r l i e r l e g i s l a t i o n i n e f f e c t s i n c e 1 8 1 8 , u n t i l t h e C i v i l Viar . it T h i s l e g i s l a t i o n c o n s id e r e d u n la w f u l t o a s s e m b le N e g ro e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f i n s t r u c t i o n i n re a d in g and w r i t i n g . 7 o f t h e p e o p le o f t h e s t a t e T hey r e f l e c t e d t h e a n x i e t y c o n c e r n in g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s c h o o l s f o r m ix ed r a c e s . The " R a d i c a l s , " of whom £4 w e re N e g r o e s , w e re t h e 6 R ic h a r d L . I o r t o n , The N eg ro I n V i r g i n i a P o l i t i c s . 1 8 6 5 -1 9 0 2 . C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a t r e s s , 1 § 1 9 , p . 179. 7 H o ra c e i.a n n B o n d , The A d u c a tio n o f t h e N eg ro i n t h e im e r ic a n S o c i a l C r d e r . New Y o rk : P r e n t i c e - I I a l i , I n c . , 1 9 3 4 , p . 17b. �-1 7 - r e a l f i g h t e r s f o r p u b lic e d u c a tio n . T hey s u c c e e d e d i n e n a c t i n g i n t o la w t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n w h ic h w as t o lo u d t o t h e f i r s t s t a t e - w i d e p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s te m i n 1869. H ow ev er, t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e s s u c c e e d e d i n d ra w in g fro m t h e R a d i c a l s e n o u g h v o t e s t o p r e v e n t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s c h o o l s f o r m ix ed r a c e s . When t h e V i r g i n i a Con s t i t u t i o n w as r a t i f i e d on J u l y 6 , 1 8 6 9 , many N e g ro e s r e b u k e d t h o s e o f t h e C o n v e n tio n who f a i l e d t o k e e p t h e i r p r o m is e t o p u t th r o u g h a n o r i g i n a l p l a n w h ic h w o u ld h av e e s ta b lis h e d s c h o o l s f r e e o f s e g r e g a t i o n . N o te w o rth y i s t h e f a c t t h a t a f t e r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n w as p a s s e d , t h e r o w e re t h o s e o f t h e w h ite r a c e who op p o sed th e i n t r o d u c ti o n o f p u b lic s c h o o ls in th e s t a t e a n d s lo w e d th e e n t i r e p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n m ovem ent. The b a s i c r e a s o n s f o r t h i s o p p o s i t i o n w e re t h r e e : 1) The w e l l t o - d o a n d t h o s e i n m o d e ra te c i r C u a s ta u o o s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e p u b l i c f r e e s c h o o l a s c h a r i t y , f o r i n t h e p a s t th e " L i t e r a r y F und" w h ic h w as s t i l l t o bo u s e d , h a d d i s t r i b u t e d c h a rity f o r in d ig e n t c h ild re n ; 2) T h e re w as a s t r o n g s e n t i m e n t i n f a v o r o f c h u rc h s c h o o l s ; 3 ) I t was f e l t t h a t f o r 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 w h ite s t o e d u c a te t h e m s e lv e s a n d 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 N e g ro e s w as a H e r c u le a n t a s k i n v ie w o f t h e p r o s t r a t e e c o n o m ic co n d i t i o n s o f th e s ta to .® I t c a n b e s e e n fro m t h e a t t i t u d e ° F. . a g ru d e r, e c e n t id m ln ls tra tio n I n V ir g in ia . J o h n s H o p k in s U n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s i n H i s t o r y m d P o l i t i c a l , o r e : The J o h n s H o p k in s F r e s s , 1 9 1 2 , V o l. 3 0 , p . 17. �-le - t a k e n a t th e p a s s a g e o f l e g i s l a t i o n p r o v i d i n g f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n t h a t a l l t h e o p p o s i t i o n w as on t h e s i d e o f t h e w h ite r a c e a n d t h a t N e g ro e s b y t h e i r l a c k o f o p p o s i t i o n , e x c e p t f o r t h e i r d i s l i k e o f s e p a r a t e s c h o o l s , w e re f i r m in t h e i r d e s ire to se c u re an e d u c a tio n . S in c e t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n w as s o v i t a l a n i s s u e t o t h i s s t u d y , t h e m a jo r t e n e t s o f a r t i c l e V T II o f t h a t d o cu m en t w i l l be d is c u s s e d a t t h i s p o i n t . The f i r s t t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f t h e a r t i c l e g a v e th e a o t u a l p r o v i s i o n f o r p u b l i c s c h o o l s , s e t t i n g up f i r s t th e o f f i c e o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r a f o u r y e a r t e r m , a n d g i v i n g t o him t h e a u t h o r i t y t o p r o p o s e a p l a n t h a t w ould b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e G e n e r a l A ssem b ly f o r a p p ro v a l. H is p l a n , i f a c c e p te d w o u ld i n t r o d u c e a u n if o r m s y s te m o f s c h o o l s i n e a c h c o u n ty by 1 6 7 6 , e s t a b l i s h e d b y la v ;. To a s s i s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w as a b o a r d o f e d u c a t i o n com posed o f t h e g o v e r n o r , s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l , w hose p o w ers w e re t o s e l e c t o r rem ove c o u n ty s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s upon c o n f i r m a t i o n by t h e S e n a t e . In a d d itio n , t h e b o a r d ’ s p o w ers in c l u d e d t h e m anagem ent an d in v e s t m e n t of school fu n d s. A ls o , a c c o r d i n g t c t h e A r t i c l e , a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e system * th e G e n e r a l A ssem b ly w as t o i n s t i t u t e w i t h i n t h e s t a t e t h e n e c e s s a r y la w s t o p r o t e c t th e c h i l d r e n fro m ig n o r a n c e a n d v a g r a n c y . To i n s u r e t h i s p r o t e c t i o n , th e l e g i s l a t i v e body w as g iv e n p o w er t o e s t a b l i s h �-1 9 - n o rm a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s , s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s , and t o p r o v id e n e c e s s a r y e q u ip m e n t. S in c e t h i s new v e n t u r e w as t o h av e a f a r - r e a c h i n g e f f e c t f i n a n c i a l l y i n a l l c o u n t i e s , i t v s v e r y im p o r t a n t .’a t h a t a " p e rm a n e n t an d p e r p e t u a l l i t e r a r y f u n d " made up o f f u n d s c o l l e c t e d fro m p r o p e r t y , by f i n e s , and b y c u r r e n c y a p p r o p r i a t e d b y t h e G e n e r a l A ssem b ly b e e s t a b l i s h e d . The s t a t e f u n d s w e re t o be d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o th e num ber o f p u p i l s fro m f i v e t o tw e n ty - o n e y e a r s o f a g e i n e a c h d i s t r i c t . T h e se f u n d s w e re t o be m a tc h e d b y t a x e s on p r o p e r t y fro m i n d iv id u a l c o u n tie s . S ch o o l o f f i c e r s e l e c te d by th e v a rio u s c o u n t i e s , w e re t o r e c e i v e s a l a r i e s f i x e d b y t h e G e n e r a l As s e m b ly . T h e se p e r s o n s , l i k e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h e s t a t e , w e re t o make an d e n f o r c e la w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e c o u n ty u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . In th is e a r l i e r c o n s t i t u t i o n o f 1 8 6 9 , no m e n tio n was made o f m ix ed o r s e p a r a t e s c h o o l s . I t m e r e ly s t a t e d t h a t s c h o o l s f o r a l l m u s t b e " u n i f o r m ." A lth o u g h fro m t h e b e g i n n in g i t w as u n d e r s to o d t h a t s c h o o l s w ere t o b e s e g r e g a t e d , t h e G e n e r a l A sse m b ly o f 1902 rem o v ed a n y d o u b t r e g a r d i n g m ix ed s c h o o ls . S e c t i o n 140 o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h a t y e a r s t a t e s : " 'T h ite and c o l o r e d c h i l d r e n s h a l l n o t b e t a u g h t i n th e same s c h o o l." 9 T h is s e c t io n h a s been in c lu d e d i n each e d i t i o n 9 .i c t o f t h e G e n e r a l i s s e s b l y . s e s s i o n o f 1 8 6 9 -7 0 . h i chi .oxia: dAmes G. o o o u e , p r i n t e r , 16*70, p p . 4 0 2 -1 7 7 �- 20 - o f t h e V i r g i n i a S c h o o l Laws s i n c e 1 9 0 2 . In 1904, th e re w e re th e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n s , w h ic h h a v e r e m a in e d t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y : " W h ite a n d c o l o r e d c h i l d r e n m u s t h e t a u g h t i n s e p a r a t e s c h o o l s u n d e r t h e same g e n e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s a s t o m a n ag em e n t, u s e f u l n e s s an d e f f i c i e n c y . (Code 1492) " C n e - s i x t a e n t h c o l o r e d b lo o d m a te s a N e g ro , a n d o n e - f o u r t h I n d ia n b lo o d , a n I n d ia n ." (Code 49) ^ T h u s, th e p o in ts s t r e s s e d in t h i s p r o v is io n o f th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e G e n e r a l A ssem b ly s e t up th e a d m in is t r a t i o n f o r p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n n e e d s an d f u r t h e r i n s i s t e d t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n o f t h e r a c e s w o u ld b e m a in ta in e d i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s te m . h e e d l e s s t o s a y , m any l e a d e r s o f t h e S o u th h ad v a r i e d o p i n i o n s o f t h i s new e d u c a t i o n a l l e g i s l a t i o n , b u t t h e N e g ro i n V i r g i n i a //as f o r t u n a t e i n h a v in g a s i t s o h am p io n G o v e rn o r G i l b e r t C. 'a l k e r , f o r m e r l y o f Mew Y ork S t a t e , who w as a s t r o n g a d v o c a te o f p u b l i c f r e e e d u c a t i o n . A t t h e ti m e o f h i s i n a u g u r a t i o n i n M arch i e ? 0 , he e x p r e s s e d h i m s e l f i n t h i s m a n n e r: "The c o l o r e d p e o p le o f o u r S t a t e , a r e , e q u a l l y w ith t h e w h i t e , c l o t h e d w i t h e l e c t i v e •.nna L . .Tones, . a \ A b rid g em en t o f th e V i r g i n i a Laws C o n c e rn in g -id u c u n ii- . L y n c h b u rg : J . i . " n o i l C o -p u n y , I n c . , P r i n t e r s , 19T 5, p . 1 ? . I b i d . , p . 17 �fra n c h ise . I n o r d e r t h a t t h e y may i n t e l l i g e n t l y e x e r c i s e th a t r ig h t, th e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e d u c a t i o n s h o u ld b e a f 1E f o r d e d them u n d e r o u r c o n s t i t u t i o n . " The f i r s t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f s c h o o ls f o r t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a , W illia m H e n ry r . u f f n e r , s h a r e d t h e v ie w s c f Gov e r n o r W alk er* S u p e r i n t e n d e n t k u f f n e r \?as a s ta u n c h b e l i e v e r i n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e ITegro an d h e t r i e d t o s e e t o i t , fro m t h e v e r y b e g i n n in g o f h i s t w e l v e - y e a r t e n u r e o f o f f ic e , t h a t c i tiz e n s o f th e c o lo re d r a c e had t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e o f s c h o o ls w h e r e v e r c o n d i t i o n s w ould p e rm it. I t w o u ld b e e n l i g h t e n i n g t o know , a t t h i s p o i n t , how t h e f i r s t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t , R ic h a r d L . C a r n e , o f A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty , f e l t a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g r o e s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e v«as no i n f o r m a t i o n i n th e e a r l y m i n u te s o f t h e c o u n ty w h ich i n d i c a t a d h i s p o s i t i o n o r t h e o p in io n s o f l a t e r s u p e r in te n d e n ts . H ow ever, i t i s f e l t t h a t th e a c c o m p lis h m e n ts i n f a v o r o r a g a i n s t ITegro e d u c a t i o n w i l l s p e a k lo u d e r t h a n a n y f o r m a l s t a t e m e n t . The p o i n t o f v ie w of t h e c i t i z e n s o f t h e c o u n ty fro m t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h i s new v e n t u r e fxom t h e y e a r s 1870 t o G o v e rn o r G i l b e r t C. - a l k e r , " L e t t e r o f C iovernor / a l k e r on t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l S y s te m ." R ichm ond: 1870 (S e p te m b e r 2 8 , 1 8 7 0 ) . �1 8 8 5 , w as e n l i g h t e n i n g a s r e g a r d s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p u b lic e d u c a tio n . fo r its A t f i r s t , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as n o te d i l l i t e r a c y , b u t a s s o o n a s p u b l i c s c h o o l s w ere a d v o o a te d b y i n f l u e n t i a l c i t i z e n s , i t h e l d a N ovem ber e l e c t i o n , s i x m o n th s i n a d v a n c e o f o t h e r c o u n t i e s f o r th e p u rp o se o f v o tin g a t a x le v y f o r th e s c h o o l s . T h i s w as g e n e r a l l y t r u e o f t h e m a g i s t e r i a l d i s t r i c t s of A r li n g t o n and J e f f e r s o n , th e l a t t e r d i s t r i c t b e in g p r e d o m i n a n tl y p o p u l a t e d b y N e g ro e s o f F reed m an * s V i l l a g e . W a sh in g to n D i s t r i c t v o te d a g a i n s t p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e f i i ' s t e l e c t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e h e a v y t a x r e q u i r e d an d t h e ig n o r a n c e o f t h e p e o p l e v o t i n g . T h is s e c t i o n , p r e d o m in a n tly w h i t e , r e m a in e d a p a t h e t i c t o p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , a l t h o u g h i n g e n e r a l t h e p e o p le o f th e c o u n t y c o n t i n u e d t o f a v o r i t i n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e rs . The c o l o r e d c i t i z e n s o f t h e c o u n ty h a d e x p r e s s e d a s t r o n g d e s i r e t o e d u c a te t h e i r c h i l d r e n fro m t h e b e g i n n in g , a n d l a t e r d i s c u s s i o n w i l l r e v e a l t h a t t h e y s u r p a s s e d th e w h i t e 8 i n p e r c e n ta g e o f e n r o l l m e n t a n d a t t e n d a n c e . A ls o , e a r l y m in u te s r e v e a l e d t h e o n ly i m p o r t a n t s t a t e m e n t o f f a c t l o c a t e d i n t h e " I 'i n u t e s o f t h e S c h o o l B o a rd T r u s t e e s " w h ic h tn n u a l He p o r t s o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , Oft. < ‘ t . , l e t L , p . 5 o 5 �-2 3 - e x p r e s s e d t h e s e n t i m e n t o f N e g ro e s r e g a r d i n g e d u c a t i o n i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . The p a s s a g e , w r i t t e n i n lo n g - h a n d i n th e m in u te b o o k , i s g i v e n a s f o l l o w s : V illa g e , Ja n u a ry l l t h / 7 1 . "F re e d m a n s (s ic ) T r u s t e e s Adams, W ib e r t and B a i l e y m e t p u r s u a n t t o a d j o u r n m e n t , t h e r e seem ed t o be q u i t e a n i n t e r e s t among t h e c o l o r e d p e o p l e , a s t h e r e w e re q u i t e a num ber o f t h e p a r e n t s a n d f r i e n d s p r e s e n t who seem ed a n x i o u s f o r a P u b l i c S c h o o l. M r. Adams made som e e x c e l l e n t r e m a rk s w h ic h w e re r e s p o n d e d t o b y som e o f t h e c o l o r e d men w i t h some v e r y good re m a rk s a s t o t h e i r v ie w s , e t c . , a f t e r w h ic h t h e T r u s t e e s a g r e e d t o open a s c h o o l a t t h i s p la c e f o r c o lo r e d c h i l d r e n . A s u ita b le house f o r so h o o l p u rp o se s be o b t a i n e d . ( s i c ) A b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f t h e s e n tim e n t re g a r d in g th e a c c e p ta n c e o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s show s t h a t : 1) A lth o u g h t h e r e w ere m any l e a d e r s a n d c i t i z e n s who w e re s lo w t o a c c e p t t h e i d e a o f e d u c a t i n g N e g r o e s , by 1 8 8 5 , p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n h ad s e c u r e d a f o o t h o l d g e n e r a l l y i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . 2) N eg ro c i t i z e n s o f t h e c o u n ty w ere s t i l l a m b iti o u s f o r e d u c a t i o n a s e x p r e s s e d by t h e i r im m e d ia te dem and f o r s c h o o l s . The i n t e r e s t m a n i f e s t e d b y t h e c o l o r e d p o r t i o n o f t h e "l i n u t o s c f t h e S c h o o l B o a rd T r u s to o s ," A r l i n g t o n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 0 5 , p a g e s u n n u m b e red . �-2 4 - p o p u l a t i o n r a i s e d th e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e x t e n t o f t h e a t te m p ts made t o p r o v id e N e g ro e s w i t h e d u c a t i o n a l a d v a n ta g e s i n t h e e a r l y s c h o o l s o f A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . 5 s t a b l i s h i a o n t o f P u b l i c S d u c a tlo n T h re e p u b l i c s c h o o l s w e re e s t a b l i s h e d i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty i n 1 8 7 0 . T hey w ere C o lu m b ia a n d W a lk er S c h o o ls f o r w h i t e s a n d A r l i n g t o n S c h o o l f o r N e g ro e s a t F re e d m e n ’ s V illa g e . As f a r a s c o u ld b e d i s c e r n e d , t h e s e w e re n o t th e r e g u la r sc h o o l h o u ses a s o f to d a y . N eg ro c h i l d r e n r e c e iv e d t h e i r e d u c a t i o n fro m s c h o o l s w h ic h w e re h e l d i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s , u s u a l l y i n c h u r c h e s o r lo d g e h a l l s i n e a c h d i s t r i c t fro m tim e t o ti m e , u n t i l s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r e s w e re b u i l t i n l a t e r y e a r s . B ecause o f t h i s a rra n g e m e n t, t h e num ber c f s o - c a l l e d s c h o o l s v a r i e d fro m y e a r t o y e a r . The b u i l d i n g s w e re r e n t e d f o r a n o m in a l f e e . The " t l i n u t e s o f t h e T r u s t e e s o f A r l i n g t o n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t ” on O c to b e r 4 , 1 8 7 5 i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o l o r e d r e s i d e n t s h a d s u b m it te d a p e t i t i o n f o r a n o t h e r c o l o r e d s c h o o l t o b e o p e n e d t o accom o d a te th o s e li v i n g i n th e s o u th e rn p o r ti o n o f th e d i s t r i c t . An a g re e m e n t e n s u e d t o o p e n a s c h o o l i n t h e A . L . S . Z io n C h u rch a t C o n v a l e s c e n t Camp f o r a p e r i o d o f tw o y e a r s . The b u i l d i n g w as t o b e p u t i n " c o m f o r ta b le " c o n d i t i o n f o r s c h o o l u s e a n d t h e S c h o o l B o ard p ro m is e d t o p a y t h e r e n t a l �-2 5 - f e e o f $ 2 5 .0 0 p e r y e a r . 1 5 * 7 1 U r . S o lo m o n Thom pson^6 s p o k e of t h e s c h o o l h e a t t e n d e d , w h ic h c o u ld q u i t e l o g i c a l l y h a v e b e e n th e sam e o n e p r o v id e d f o r b y th e T r u s te e s . He s t a t e d : "M r. H erm an A l s t o n o f F l o r i d a w as t h e f i r s t t e a c h e r o f Kemper S c h o o l i n t h e a p p r o x im a te y e a r o f 1 8 7 6 . y e a r f o r m any y e a r s . M is s a d a G ray t a u g h t t h e s e c o n d S he was my f i r s t t e a c h e r , an d I w as t h e n a b o u t n in e y e a r s o l d . The s c h o o l w as i n n e e d o f a j a n i t o r t h i s v e r y y e a r a n d th r o u g h t h e i n s i s t a n c e o f my m o th e r I to o k o v e r t h e j o b . The s c h o o l w as t h e n moved t o a f ra m e b u i l d i n g on S e m in a ry R o a d . I h ad grow n t o manhood w hen i t b u r n e d ." The s c h o o l b o a r d m i n u te s seem ed t o c o n c u r w ith M r. Thom pson’ s s t a t e m e n t s , f o r on J u l y 8 , 1 8 8 5 , th e s u b j e c t o f b u i l d i n g a new s c h o o l h o u s e f o r c o l o r e d c h i l d r e n n e a r C o n v a le s c e n t Camp t o r e p l a c e a w ooden s t r u c t u r e t h a t had b u r n e d v/as d i s c u s s e d . T h i s n ew ’b u i l d i n g w as t o b e 2 4 ,4 3 6 17 T h e re w as no f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f e e t o f fra m e one s t o r y . " t o p r o v e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e w as a c t u a l l y b u i l t . H ow ever, a t w o - s t o r y b u i l d i n g c o s t i n g $ 1 ,5 0 0 .0 0 w as c o n s t r u c t e d a s 15 m an. I b l d «i 1 8 7 0 -1 9 0 5 ^ I n t e r v i e w w i t h M r. S olom on Thom pson, r e t i r e d b u s i n e s s 17 „ 'M i n u t e s o f A r l i n g t o n D i s t r i c t , "o p . c l t . . 1 8 7 0 -1 9 0 5 . �-2 6 - t h e r e s u l t o f a d e c i s i o n b y t h e B o a rd on J u n e 1 , 1 8 9 3 . T h i s w as one o f th e f i r s t s c h o o l b u i l d i n g a t t e m p t s , a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e v;as a l s o c a l l e d th e K em per S c h o o l. w e re tw o t e a c h e r s a s s i g n e d t o th e T h e re jo b o f i n s t r u c t i o n . I n J e f f e r s o n D i s t r i c t o f A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty a n o t h e r s c h o o l w as s i t u a t e d . a s to re I t w as a c l a s s r o o m l o c a t e d o v e r w i t h a ILr. L o n n ie H yson a s i n s t r u c t o r . L a te r, t h e r e w as a s c h o o l know n a s " O ld J e f f e r s o n , ” l o c a t e d n e a r th e p r e s e n t s i t e o f H o ffm a n -B o s to n H ig h S c h o o l. I t becam e s o d i l a p i d a t e d t h a t some p a r e n t s , l i v i n g on C o lu m b ia F ik e a m a in th o r o u g h f a r e n e a r t h e s c h o o l, p e t i t i o n e d t h e s c h o o l b o a rd f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o u s e t h e S u n d a y S c h o o l room o f S t> J o h n f s C h u rc h f o r s c h o o l p u r poses. Had t h e p a r e n t s n o t t a k e n t h i s s t e p , t h e i r c h i l d r e n w ould h av e b e e n f o r c e d t o g o t o K em per s c h o o l h o u s e i n A r l i n g t o n D i s t r i c t , a much l o n g e r d i s t a n c e aw ay . I n sum m ary, i t w as f o u n d t h a t : 1 ) From 1870 t o 1893 t h e r e w e re no b u i l d i n g s c o n s t r u c t e d f o r N eg ro p u p i l s i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . 2) H o u sin g o f N eg ro p u p i l s d u r in g t h e s e y e a r s w*s u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d t o room s i n c h u r c h e s , l o d g e - h a l l s o r b u i l d i n g s r e n t e d b y t h e S c h o o l B o ard T ru s te e s . B e c a u s e o f t h i s , t h e num ber o f s o - c a l l e d s c h o o ls v a r i e d fro m y e a r t o y e a r , up t o 1 8 9 3 . The b u i l d i n g s w h ich w e re r e n t e d o r c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e s c h o o l b o a r d w e re s m a l l �-2 7 w ooden s t r u c t u r e s w h ic h w e re n o t t h e b e s t t y p e o f c o n s tru c tio n . I t i s re a s o n a b le t o assu m e, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e a t te m p ts a t e s t a b l i s h i n g a d e q u a te s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s f o r ITegro p u p i l s w as one o f t h e s e r i o u s p ro b le m s o f t h e c o u n t y . A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as no d i f f e r e n t fro m o t h e r V i r g i n i a C o u n ti e s i n t h a t r e s p e c t . T e a c h in g P e r s o n n e l The p ro b le m o f s e c u r i n g s u i t a b l e N eg ro t e a c h e r p e r s o n n e l f o r t h e a f o r e m e n ti o n e d s c h o o l s d i d n o t a p p e a r t o b e a s d i f f i c u l t i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty a s i t w as f o r t h e S t a t e i n g e n e r a l a f t e r t h e C i v i l W ar. I n m any c o u n t i e s N eg ro c h i l d r e n w ere t a u g h t b y w h ite t e a c h e r s u n t i l e n o u g h N eg ro t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e d a d e q u a te t r a i n i n g t o ta k e o v e r th e p o s i t i o n s o f w h ite i n s t r u c t o r s . I n t h e c o u n ty o f A le x a n d r i a t h e r e w e re N eg ro t e a c h e r s fr o m t h e v e r y b e g in n in g , a c c o rd in g to th e a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f p u b l i o i n s t r u c t i o n 12 a n d t h e m i n u te s o f t h e s c h o o l b o a rd o f f i c e . * 19 H ow ever, t h e f a c t r e m a in s t h a t th e r e w e re , i n 1871, a t th e tim e o f t h e f i r s t r e p o r t , 10 a n n u a l R e p o r t s o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f F u b lio I n s t r u c t i o n , o p . o l t . , 1871, p . 156. 19 i n u t e s o f A r l i n g t o n D i s t r i c t , n o p . c i t . . 1870-1905* �-2 8 - t h r e e w h ite t e a c h e r s f o r 126 w h i t e c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d and t h r e e N eg ro t e a c h e r s f o r 207 c o l o r e d p u p i l s e n r o l l e d . A lth o u g h a v e r a g e d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e o f a l l p u p i l s was lo w e r , t h e r e w e re s t i l l m o re N eg ro p u p i l s p e r t e a c h e r t h a n w h ite p u p ils p er te a c h e r. T h is m ig h t i n d i c a t e a s h o r t a g e o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s , b u t i t i s m ore l i k e l y t h a t e v e n a t t h i s e a r l y d a t e t h e s c h o o l b o a rd f e l t th e num ber o f t e a c h e r s em p lo y ed f o r N eg ro p u p i l s v/as s u f f i c i e n t t o h a n d le t h e e n ro llm e n t. F rom 1875 t o 1890 i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty , th e num ber o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s e x c e e d e d th e n um ber o f w h ite t e a c h e r s , a n d N e g ro e n r o l l m e n t l i k e w i s e e x c e e d e d t h e w h ite e n r o l l m e n t. N e g ro t e a c h e r s o u tn u m b e re d w h i t e t e a c h e r s b y one o r tw o , d e p e n d in g on t h e s c h o o l y e a r i n q u e s t i o n . The y e a r s 1 8 9 5 t o 1900 fo u n d a n i n c r e a s e i n w h ite t e a c h e r s fro m s e v e n t o t e n an d N eg ro t e a c h e r s f r o m f i v e t o s i x . The e n r o l l m e n t o f w h ite p u p i l s i n c r e a s e d fro m 320 p u p i l s i n 1895 t o 4 8 5 i n 1 9 0 0 , w h i l e N eg ro p u p i l s i n c r e a s e d fro m 305 t o 4 0 1 . I t is s ig n i f i c a n t t h a t th e te a c h in g f o rc e i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h e e n r o l l m e n t , b u t t h e i n c r e a s e i n N egro t e a c h e r s w as n o t a s g r e a t p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y a s i t w as w i t h th e o th e r r a c e , m e n t. d u e t o t h e c o n s ta n c y of t h e N eg ro e n r o l l �-2 9 - T e a c lie r E d u c a ti o n a n d Q . a a l i f i o a t i o n s A n o th e r p h a s e o f t e a c h e r s t a t u s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i s t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s i n t h e c o u n ty i n q u e s tio n . U n ite d S ta t e B f i g u r e s h a v e n o t b een f o u n d f o r c o m p a r a tiv e p u r p o s e s b e c a u s e d u r i n g e a r l i e r y e a r s t h e r e w e re fe w u n if o r m s t a n d a r d s o f a p p o i n t i n g t e a c h e r s on th e b a s i s o f q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . B u t, i t w as g e n e r a l l y known i n t h e C om m onw ealth, t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s w ere l i m i t e d . O th e r w is e , t h e r e w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n s u c h an u r g e n t c a l l f o r w h ite s to te a c h in th o s e e a r l i e r y e a rs . One r e a s o n f o r l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s w as th e a l m o s t t o t a l l a c k o f e d u c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g p r o v id e d f o r t h e c o l o r e d r a c e b e f o r e 1870 i n V i r g i n i a . I n f a c t , f o r m any y e a r s , i t w as i l l e g a l f o r N e g ro e s t o be g iv e n t r a i n i n g i n t h e s t a t e . T h u s , th e m a j o r i t y o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s i n V i r g i n i a an d i n A le x a n d ri a C o u n ty r e c e i v e d t h e i r e d u c a t i o n i n p u b li c o r p r i v a t e s c h o o ls o f o th e r s t a t e s . I t w as n o te d i n 1 8 6 5 i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty t h a t o n l y one N e g ro t e a c h e r h a d r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g a t H am pton N orm al I n s t i t u t e in th e s t a t e . T h e re w e re n o c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s t e a c h i n g i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty , a n d n o n e w ith n o rm a l s c h o o l d ip lo m a s i n N eg ro s c h o o l s d u r i n g t h i s p e rio d . The l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h e r s c a n be f u r t h e r in d ic a te d by te a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t e s . No n a t i o n a l f i g u r e s w ere �-3 0 - g iv e n b e c a u s e e a c h s t a t e h a d i t s own p la n o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n . N a t u r a l l y , t h e s t a t e h a d no u n if o r m c e r t i f i c a t e s d u r i n g t h e e a r l y p e r i o d , b u t t h e y d i d a c c e p t many N e g ro t e a c h e r s w i t h a minimum am o u n t o f t r a i n i n g * F o r t h i s re a s o n th e r e w as a l s o a l a c k o f u n i f o r m i t y i n k i n d s o f c e r t i f i c a t e s i s s u e d am ong w h i t e s a n d N e g r o e s . T h o se c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s w i t h c e r t i f i c a t e s e q u a l t o w h i t e s w e re p r o d u c t s o f i n f e r i o r N eg ro s c h o o l b e c a u s e t h e N eg ro s c h o o l c o u l d n o t a f f o r d t o w eed o u t t h o s e w ith p o o r a b i l i t y . C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e rs The f i r s t r e c o r d e d i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e S t a t e c o n c e r n i n g a n y u n if o r m s y s te m of c e r t i f i c a t i o n w as l o c a t e d i n th e A nnual R e p o rts o f th e S u p e rin te n d e n t o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t i o n i n th e y e a r 1 8 9 5 -9 6 . A t t h a t tim e , th e S t a t e B o a rd in c lu d e d t y p e s o f q u e s t i o n s a s k e d on e x a rd .n a tio n s f o r te a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t e s . C e r t i f i c a t e s f o r N eg ro t e a c h e r s w e re g iv e n t h e same nam es a s t h o s e f o r w h i t e s , w ith th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e was a d i f f e r e n c e i n th e e x a m in a tio n s . A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty f o ll o w e d t h e s t a t e s y s te m o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n , w i t h N e g ro e s i n t h e f i r s t g r a d e l e v e l , b e i n g t h r e e i n n u m b e r; s e c o n d g r a d e l e v e l , n o n e ; and t h i r d ° > nnu'il r e p o r t s o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f l u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , o p . c l t . , 16 9 & -9 6 , p . 1 1 9 . �-3 1 - g r a d e , tw o . I n c o m p a r is o n , th e w h ite s w ere i n h i g h e r b r a c k e ts w ith P r o f e s s io n a ls , th r e e ; f i r s t g ra d e , f o u r ; second g ra d e , one; and t h i r d g rad e l e v e l , n o n e. Al th o u g h n o w h ite s w ere i n t h e c o l l e g i a t e g r o u p , t h e y w ere a s t e p h i g h e r t h a n N eg ro t e a c h e r s who h e l d no p r o f e s s i o n a l c e r t i f i c a t e s a t a l l a t t h i s tim e . B ut a fa v o ra b le s id e o f N eg ro t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n i n th e c o u n ty w as t h a t t h e r e w e re n o e m e rg e n c y c e r t i f i c a t e s i s s u e d a s w as t r u e o f many o f th e o th e r c o u n tie s i n V i r g i n i a . T h i s w o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t i n c o m p a ris o n w i t h V i r g i n i a a s a w h o le , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty t e a c h e r s w ere a b o v e a v e r a g e i n t r a i n i n g . T e ach ers7 S a la rie s liv en th o u g h t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s w as c o n s i d e r e d a b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n in g t h e s a l a r i e s o f t e a c h e r s , t h e r e w as no u n ifo rm n a t i o n a l , s t a t e , o r l o c a l s c a l e * In 2 1 21 N o te : The V i r g i n i a D e p a rtm e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , i n a b u l l e t i n e n t i t l e d " C o n c e rn in g C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s ," i s s u e d i n 1 9 1 4 , g i v e s t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r e a c h ty p e o f c e r t i f i c a t e s _s fo llo w s : C o lle g ia te , a b a c o a la u re a te d e g re e ; P r o f e s s i o n a l . N orm al S c h o o l d ip lo m a ; F i r s t G ra d e . H ig h S c h o o l g r a d u a t e o f a f o u r - y e a r c o u r s e ; S eco n d G ra d e , H igh S c h o o l g r a d u a t e o f a t h r e e - y e a r c o u r s e ; T h ir d G r a d e , l e s s t h a n t h r e e y e a r s h ig h s c h o o l t r a i n i n g ; E m e rg e n c y , p e r s o n s w i t h som e t r a i n i n g , h o w e v e r, w ith o u t a c e r t i f i c a t e , who h a d b ee n r e q u e s t e d t o t e a c h i n a n em e rg e n c y ; s p e c i a l C e r t i f i c a t e , p e r s o n s w ith F i r s t G rad e C e r t i f i c a t e s t e a c h i n g s p e c i a l s u b j e c t s , s u c h a s k i n d e r g a r t e n , n a t u r e s t u d y , c o m m e rc ia l s u b j e c t s , m u s ic , e t c . �-3 2 - t h e e a r l y y e a r s fro m 1871 t o 1 8 9 9 , s a l a r y w as m ore o r l e s s a l o c a l m a t t e r i n V i r g i n i a f o r c o u n ty s c h o o l b o a r d s p a i d t o i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s w h a t t h e y f e l t w as s u i t a b l e f o r th e m . I t w as g e n e r a l l y c o n c e d e d t h a t N eg ro t e a c h e r s w e re n o t e n title d t o e q u a l s a l a r i e s th r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e ; t h u s , i t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d t h a t N eg ro t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e d a p p r o x i m a t e ly o n e - h a l f t h e s a l a r i e s o f w h i t e s , i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , th r o u g h o u t V i r g i n i a . From 1 8 7 1 t o i e 8 2 , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty s t a t i s t i c s w e re n o t l i s t e d s e p a r a t o l y f o r w h ite and c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s i n t h e s c h o o l b o a r d r e c o r d s , b u t i t w as r e v e a l e d t h a t s a l a r i e s f l u c t u a t e d fro m a lo w o f ^ 2 6 .6 6 p e r m o n th f o r f e m a le t e a c h e r s t o a h ig h o f v 5 0 ,0 0 f o r m a le t e a c h e r s , w i t h t h e a v e r a g e s a l a r y i n 1 8 7 1 b e i n g *>43.40 p e r t e a c h e r . From 1 8 8 3 t o 1 8 9 9 , r e c o r d s show ed a c o m p a ris o n o f s a l a r i e s o f w h ite a n d N e g ro , m a le a n d f e m a le i n s t r u c t o r s , w h ic h i n d i c a t e d , g e n e r a l l y , th e t r e n d o f s a l a r i e s i n th e c o u n ty . W h ite m a le s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d m a i n t a i n e d , a t a l l t i m e s , th e h ig h e s t s a l a r i e s o v er a l l o th e r p e rs o n s . N eg ro m a le s a l a r i e s , w e re , in th e m a jo r it y o f in s t a n c e s , th e s l i g h t l y a b o v e t h e w h ite fe m u le s a l a r i e s , same o r lle g ro f e m a le s s a l a r i e s w e re g e n e r a l l y t h e l o w e s t , e x c e p t f o r one y e a r , 1 8 9 5 , w hen i t w as s l i g h t l y ab o v e t h e w h ite f e m a le t e a c h e r . T h e re w as a d i s t i n c t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e s a l a r i e s o f �-3 3 - th e w h ite m a le an d t h e N eg ro f e m a le o f a s much a s ^ 2 5 .0 0 in 1890, o r a s l i t t l e a s $ 6 .6 7 i n 1 8 9 9 . O nly i n 1 8 8 6 , d i d t h e N eg ro f e m a le s a l a r y e x c e e d t h a t c f t h e w h ite m a le b y th e d i f f e r e n c e o f v 2 .5 0 . The r e a s o n s f o r a n o c c a s i o n a l e x c e s s i n f a v o r o f N e g ro m a le s an d f e m a le t e a c h e r s w as due p o s s i b l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w as a g r e a t e r t u r n o v e r i n w h ite p e r s o n n e l w h ic h m e a n t t h a t t h e i r s a l a r i e s d i d n o t i n c l u d e b o n u s e s f o r y e a rs o f te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e . As w as t r u e o f t h e S o u th a n d o f V i r g i n i a i n g e n e r a l , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty N eg ro t e a c h e r s u s u a l l y r e m a in e d u n t i l r e t i r e m e n t , r e c e i v i n g s m a l l e r b o n u s e s , b u t o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f ti m e s u r p a s s i n g , i n som e i n s t a n c e s , t h e s a l a r i e s o f w h ite b e g in n in g t e a c h e r s . s c h o o l T erm s I n a n o t h e r r e s p e c t , t h e A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty N egro t e a c h e r s w e re f o r t u n a t e fro m t h e v e r y b e g i n n in g o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n h a v in g t h e l o n g e s t s c h o o l te r m o f a n y c o u n ty in V irg in ia . T e a c h e r s i n t h e Com m onwealth a s a w h o le t a u g h t 4 .6 6 m o n th s i n 1 8 7 1 , w h ile A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty t e a c h e r s w e re em ployed f o r f i v e m o n th s o r a p p r o x i m a t e ly 90 s c h o o l d a y s . I t w as o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r so s h o r t a te rm i n t h e s t a t e w as t h e f a c t t h a t V i r g i n i a w as l a r g e l y r u r a l a n d s c h o o l s w e re g e n e r a l l y c l o s e d d u r in g t h e �-3 4 - f a r m in g s e a s o n s , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as a s u r b u r b a n a r e a w h ic h c o u l d a f f o r d t o h o ld l o n g e r s e s s i o n s . T h is w as t h e o n l y y e a r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e c o u n ty t h a t t h e s c h o o l t e r n w as l e s s t h a n e i g h t m o n th s . I n 1674 a n d 1 6 7 5 t h e te r m s w e re e l e v e n m o n th s , t h e maximum tim e s c h o o l s w ere e v e r i n s e s s i o n . I t w as com m endable t h a t b o t h Z^egro a n d w h ite t e a c h e r s t a u g h t t h e same l e n g t h o f tim e . T h i s a f f e c t e d t h e s a l a r i e s o f a l l c o u n ty t e a c h e r s , a l l o w i n g them m ore s a l a r i e s p e r m o n th f o r a l o n g e r s c h o o l te r m . O b v io u s ly , t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s can b e draw n w ith r e g a r d t o N eg ro t e a c h e r s : 1) Em ploym ent o f a N eg ro i n s t r u c t i o n a l s t a f f p r e s e n t e d no s e r i o u s p ro b le m t o s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s o f -A le x a n d ria C o u n ty ; 2) /h ile t h e r e may have b een a g r e a t e r p u p il lo a d f o r c o lo re d te a c h e r s th a n f o r w h i t e s , t h e N eg ro t e a c h i n g f o r c e i n c r e a s e d w i t h p u p i l e n r o llm e n t; 3) A lth o u g h N eg ro t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n and s a l a r i e s w ere lo w e r a s co m p ared t o w h i t e s , t h e y w ere a b o v e th e S ta te a v e ra g e ; 4 ) A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty s e t a p r e c e d e n t a s e a r l y a s 1671 i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a s c h o o l t e r n f o r b o th w h ite a n d N eg ro p u p i l s w h ic h w as l o n g e r t h a n a n y o th e r c o u n ty i n t h e C om m onwealth o f V i r g i n i a . i o p u l a t i o n an d E n r o llm e n t C e r t a i n l y t h e s i t u a t i o n i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w ith r e - �-3 5 - g a r d t o N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n , e n r o l l m e n t an d a t t e n d a n c e c f t h i s e a r l y p e r io d b e a rs d is c u s s io n in th i s c h a p te r s in c e it w as i n f l u e n c e d b y th e im p o r t a n t s o c i a l a n d ec o n o m ic t r i t l s e n c o u n te r e d b y th e S o u th . From 1870 t o 1876 th e l a r g e s t p a r t o f t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f N e g ro e s who v/ere i n t e n t upon r e c e i v i n g a common e d u c a t i o n p r o v id e d f o r b y t h e V i r g i n i a C o n s t i t u t i o n . f l u e n c e b e h in d th e m w as fro m t h e N o r th . The i n B ut in 1877, w hen P r e s i d e n t C a r f i e l d w ith d r e w th e l a s t of t h e F e d e r a l g a r r i s o n s fro m t h o s e s o u t h e r n s t a t e s w h ic h h a d f o u g h t t h e U n io n , i t m a rk ed t h e e n d o f t h e l e g a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S o u th . S o u th e r n s t a t e s t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o d o m e s tic m a t t e r s w i t h t h e f e e l i n g t h a t s i n c e " c a r p e t - b a g " c o n t r o l a n d f e d e r a l t r o o p s h ad b ee n w ith d r a w n fro m t h e i r m i d s t , t h e y now w ere f r e e t o w ork o u t t h e i r own p l a n s f o r r e b u i l d i n g t h e S o u th . F o r t h e S o u th , a c t u a l r e c o n s t r u c tio n had j u s t begun. The m ore a b l e o f th e s o u t h e r n e r s t u r n e d to w a r d p o l i t i c s and v /i th sh rew d m a n i p u l a t i o n s u n d e r to o k t o r i d t h e i r s t a t e p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e s o f N eg ro in o u m b e n ts . in g th e p e rio d j u s t p r i o r to th e t u r n o f th e D ur c e n tu r y t h e N eg ro i n t h e S o u th f o u n d h i m s e l f r e l i e v e d o f t h e b a l l o t a n d p u s h e d fro m t h e f o r e g r o u n d o f p o l i t i c a l e n d e a v o r s . T h e re w ere o t h e r r u d e a w a k e n in g s a n d d is a p p o i n tm e n ts f o r �-3 6 - t h e N e g ro , t o o . I n 1 8 7 9 , t h e r e b e g a n an ex o d u s o f N e g ro e s fro m t h e S o u th t o t h e N o r th a n d V e s t, f o r t h e y f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o p u r c h a s e d e s i r a b l e l a n d s , an d h a v i n g l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m odern f a r m l i f e , t h e y f o u n d i t m ore an d m ore u n a t t r a c t i v e . P e r h a p s a c o m p a ris o n o f s t a t i s t i c s w i l l g iv e f u r t h e r p r o o f t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d p u b l i c e d u c a tio n . I n 1 8 7 1 , th e c e n s u s f i g u r e s r e v e a l e d a t o t a l U n ite d S t a t e s p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly 38 m i l l i o n p e o p l e . t h i s n u m b e r, o v e r 4 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 w e re N e g r o e s . sam e y e a r th e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e Of D u r in g t h a t o f V i r g i n i a w as f i x e d a t 1 ,2 2 5 ,1 6 3 p e r s o n s w i t h 7 1 2 ,0 6 9 o f t h e s e b e in g w h ite an d 5 1 2 ,8 4 1 b e i n g N e g r o e s . 22 N u m e r i c a ll y s p e a k i n g , t h e n a t i o n ’ s p o p u la tio n i n t h a t y e a r p r e s e n te d th e p ic tu r e o f t h e N eg ro a s a " t e n - p o r - c e n t e r . ” H ow ever, i t i s t o be n o t i c e d t h a t t h e m a s s e s o f N e g ro e s l i v e d i n t h e S o u th and as re fle c te d in t h e p o p u la tio n f ig u r e s o f th e s o u th e rn s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a , s o m e tim e s show ed e q u a l n u m b e rs w i t h t h e w h ite s . The s t a t e c o u n t o f t h a t y e a r p la c e d t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n a t a b o u t 4 1 .9 ^ o f t h e t o t a l . The sam e y e a r sh ow ed a n e v e n g r e a t e r d e n s i t y o f N eg ro C o m p iled fro m U . S . D e p a rtm e n t of Com m erce, B u re a u o f C e n s u s , i i i s t o r i c a l D t - a t i a t i c s o f t h e U n ite d s t a t e s . 17G 91945. .’a s h i n g t o n , D. C .; l 9 4 9 . ---------- �-3 7 - p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e c o u n ty o f A le x a n d r i a w h e re a l i s t i n g o f 1 1 7 5 w h i t e s a n d 2010 N e g ro e s r e f l e c t e d a p r e d o m in a n t l y c o l o r e d p o p u l a t i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly 6 3 $ . A g a in s t t h i s p a t t o r n o f p o p u l a t i o n o an be p l a c e d th e i n t e r e s t i n g p i c tu r e of s c h o o l p o p u la tio n and s c h o o l a tte n d a n c e i n t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a a n d i n t h e c o u n t y o f A l e x a n d i i a fro m f i g u r e s o f t h e sam e y e a r . A p o t e n t i a l s c h o o l p o p u la tio n i n c l u d i n g p e r s o n s b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f f i v e a n d tw e n t y - o n e w as l i s t e d a s 4 4 1 ,0 2 1 i n t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a w i t h 1 5 4 ,0 1 9 o f t h e s e b e i n g o f N e g ro d e s c e n t f o r a p e r c e n t a g e o f a b o u t 3 7 .2 . In 1871, of th e e l i g i b l e N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e c o r d s show t h a t 2 3 .4 # w as e n r o l le d i n s c h o o l. The c o u n t y c f A le x a n d r i a sh o w in g a p o t e n t i a l s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n o f 3 6 8 w h i t e s a n d o f 554 N e g r o e s , f o llo w e d c l o s e ly th e f i g u r e s o f i t s p o p u la tio n f o r s tu d e n t e l i g i b ility . F i f t y - n i n e an d s e v e n t e n t h s p e r c e n t o f i t s N egro p o p u l a t i o n w as e l i g i b l e f o r s c h o o l i n g a s co m p ared w ith t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n a v e r a g e o f 66f>. S ix te e n p e rc e n t of t h e e l i g i b l e 5 9 .7 # o f t h e N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n w as e n r o lle d in s c h o o l. I n a l i k e c o m p a r is o n , 2 0 # o f th e e l i g i b l e w h ite c o h o o l p o p u l a t i o n w as e n r o l l e d . The a v e r a g e d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e f o r t h e N eg ro g r o u p i n >nnu i l No s o r t s o f t h e N u p e r in t e n d o n t o f x u b ll o I n s tr u c t io n , op. c l t . , 1871, p . Is S . �-3 8 - V i r g i n i a w as 2 3 ,4 5 2 , w h ile t h e same f o r t h e w h i t e g ro u p w as 5 2 ,2 7 0 . The a v e ra g e d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e f o r t h e N egro g r o u p i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty w as 86 p e r s o n s , an d f o r w h ite s 73 p e r s o n s . The y e a r 1890 fo u n d a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s p o p u l a t i o n o f N e g ro e s o f a p p r o x i m a t e ly 11.355. The t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s w ere 6 2 ,9 4 7 ,7 1 4 , w i t h 5 5 ,1 0 1 ,2 5 8 w h i t e s an d 7 ,4 8 8 ,6 7 6 N e g r o e s . I n V i r g i n i a , t h e r e was a d e c r e a s e i n t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n , h u t t h e i r num bers s t i l l made up a c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o p o r t i o n a t 3 8 .4 $ . w e re 1 ,0 2 0 ,1 2 2 w h ite s a n d 6 3 5 ,4 3 8 N eg ro p e r s o n s . T h e re The p o t e n t i a l s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n o f N e g ro e s i n c r e a s e d t o 2 7 5 ,3 8 8 p e r s o n s o r 4 2 .3 $ . B u t, i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty t h e r e b e g a n a n o t i c e a b l e d e c r e a s e o f c o l o r e d p u p i l s t o 5 1 .0 $ a s a g a i n s t 5 9 .7 $ i n 1871. T h is i n d i c a t e d t h e e x o d u s fro m t h e c o u n ty t o n o r t h e r n c itie s . H ow ever, th e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n e n r o l l e d in c r e a s e d fro m 1 6 .0 $ i n 1671 t o 4 3 .0 $ i n 1 8 9 0 . P e r h a p s t h i s show ed a n i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t o f p e r s o n s e n r o ll e d in p u b lic e d u c a tio n . W hile d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e w as s t i l l lo w a s co m p ared t o e n r o l l m e n t , t h e r e w e re m ore p u p i l s o f t h e N eg ro r a c e a t te n d in g s c h o o l th a n in 1871. The f i g u r e s show ed 185 N eg ro p u p i l s i n d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e i n 1890 a s co m p ared t o 86 i n 1 8 7 1 . The w h its p u p i l s i n c r e a s e d i n d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e , �-3 9 - a l s o , w ith 128 i n s c h o o l i n 1890 a s a g a i n s t 73 i n 1 8 7 1 . I t is im p o r t a n t t o i n d i c a t e a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w ere s t i l l m ore N e g ro e s a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l t h a n w h i t e s , a l t h o u g h t h e e n r o l l m e n t f o r N eg ro p u p i l s w as b ec o m in g m ore c o n s t a n t . I t seem s a v a l i d c o n c l u s i o n , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t , f o l l o w in g t h e t r e n d o f t h e S o u th a n d o f t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a ; 1 ) A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty i n 1871 a n d t h e y e a r s f o l l o w i n g , t o 1 8 8 9 , h a d a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d a N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u la t i o n t h a t e x c e e d e d t h a t o f t h e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n . 2 ) From 1890 t o 1 8 9 9 , t h e N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o d e c r e a s e i n s i z e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e w as a n i n c r e a s e i n p u p i l e n r o l lm e n t a n d a t t e n d a n c e o v e r th e e a r l i e r y e a r s . I t w as e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t t o o b s e r v e t h e g r a d u a l te n d e n c y w i t h i n t h e N eg ro r a c e t o a t t e n d s c h o o l , i n s p i t e o f e a r l y i n d i f f e r e n c e t o a t t e n d a n c e la w s w h ic h t h e s c h o o l b o a rd had a tte m p te d to e n f o r c e . W ith t h i s i n c r e a s e d a t te n d a n c e o f N eg ro p u p i l s , t h e c o s t o f t h e i r i n s t r u c t i o n was an added b u rd e n to th e c o u n ty o f A le x a n d ria . I u c h o f t h e ec o n o m ic l e t h a r g y i n t h e S o u th w as s t i l l r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i n s u f f i c i e n t money e x p e n d e d f o r s c h o o l s . E conom ic d e p r e s s i o n a f f e c t e d a l l V i r g i n i a c o u n t i e s , n o t e x c lu d in g A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . T h e re w e re e n o rm o u s d e b t s w h ic h n e c e s s i t a t e d r i g i d p u b l i c econom y. N ot u n t i l t h e 9 0 ’ s d i d ec o n o m ic r e c u p e r a t i o n b e g i n a n d s u b s t a n t i a l �-4 0 - sc h o o l rev en u e s in c r e a s e . The c o m p la c e n c y o f A le x a n d r i a w as e x h i b i t e d b y s u c h v a r i e d an d s c a t t e r e d f i g u r e s t h a t a c o m p le te p i c t u r e o f t h e c a p i t a l o u t l a y w as i m p o s s i b l e . From 1 8 7 1 t o 1 8 8 3 , o n ly t o t a l f i g u r e s w e re g i v e n , w i t h t h e c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n p e r p u p i l e n r o l l e d b e i n g $ 0 .7 6 p e r m o n th . From 1886 t o 1 8 8 9 , t h e r e was a d e c id e d im p r o v e m e n t, i n t h a t t h e a v e r a g e c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n p e r y e a r w as $ 5 8 .6 6 f o r w h ite p u p i l s a n d $ 4 7 .9 2 f o r N egro p u p ils . The o b v io u s im p r e s s i o n fro m t h e l a s t s t a t i s t i c s w as t h a t t h e c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n t h e c o u n ty w as lo w e r t h a n t h a t f o r w h i t e s , an d t h a t p e r h a p s fro m 1 8 7 1 t o t h a t t i m e , t h e r e may h a v e b e e n d i f f e r e n c e s i n m oney e x p e n d e d f o r t h e tw o r a c e s . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , fro m t h e c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e c u r r i c u lu m in c l u d e d o n ly t h e b a s i c s u b j e c t s o f s p e l l i n g , r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , a r i t h m e t i c , gram m ar, an d g eo g rap h y . T e x tb o o k s a d o p t e d f o r t h e s e s u b j e c t s w e re M cG uffey*s H e a d e rs a n d S p e l l e r s , D a v i s ' a rith m e tic s . M a u ry 's G e o g r a p h ie s , a n d H a r v e y 's G ram m ars. The c o u n ty m et s t a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b a s i c m a jo r s u b j e c t s , b u t i t w as n o t u n t i l 1900 t h a t t h e r e w as a n y e x p a n s i o n o f th e c u r r i c u l u m t o i n c l u d e s u c h a d d i t i o n a l m in o r s u b j e c t s a a m u s ic an d d r a w in g , c o n s i d e r e d b y E llw o o d C u b b e r le y , a n a u t h o r i t y on p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n , t o h a v e b e e n im p o r t a n t i n �-4 1 - p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s a t t h a t t i m e . 24 The e a r l i e r p e r i o d , 1870 t o 1899 h a s r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s i n sum m ary: 1) B e fo re p u b lic edu c a t i o n w as e s t a b l i s h e d i n V i r g i n i a , n e g r o e s a v a i l e d th e m s e lv e s o f t r a i n i n g a t e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y . S) T h e re v/as s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n among some w h i t e s t o t h e i d e a o f f r e e p u b lic e d u c a tio n , e s p e c i a ll y f o r N eg ro es. H ow ever, b y 1 8 8 5 , p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n h a d g a i n e d a c c e p ta n c e i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . 3 ) The o r i g i n a l s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n made no r e f e r e n c e t o r a c i a l l y s e g r e g a t e d s c h o o l s , b u t th e V i r g i n i a A sse m b ly made t h i s la w i n 1 9 0 2 . 4 ) N e g ro c i t i z e n s w o rk ed c o n tin u a lly f o r b e t te r e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s , de m a n d in g a d e q u a te s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s . D e s p ite t h i s i n t e r e s t i n e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e num ber o f c o l o r e d p u p i l s e x c e e d e d t h e w h i t e s , no s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s w e re co n s t r u c t e d f o r N e g ro e s fro m 1670 t o 1 8 9 3 . In co n sequence, s c h o o l s w ere h o u s e d i n c h u r c h e s , l o d g e - h a l l s , o r r e n t e d b u ild in g s . 5) P r o c u r i n g N eg ro t e a c h e r s was n o t a s e r i o u s p ro b le m d u e t o th e s u p p ly a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s o f F re e d n e n ’s V illa g e . 6) W h ile N eg ro t e a c h e r s h a d g r e a t e r p u p i l l o a d s t h a n w h ite t e a c h e r s , t h e r e w as a n e f f o r t made t o k e e p t h e l o a d fro m i n c r e a s i n g w i t h g ro w in g 24 llw o o d P a t t e r s o n C u b b e r le y . P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . C a m b rid g e : The R i v e r s i d e P ro a s , ' I '9 l9 , p . 4V4. �-4 2 - a t t e n d a n c e th r o u g h h i r i n g o f m ore t e a c h e r s . 7 ) A lth o u g h N eg ro t e a c h e r c e r t i f i c a t i o n s t a n d a r d s an d s a l a r i e s w e re lo w a s c o m p a re d t o th e w h i t e s , t h e y w e re a b o v e th e s t a t e a v e ra g e f o r V ir g in i a . 8) A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty , b y 1 8 7 1 , h a d e s t a b l i s h e d a s c h o o l te r m f o r b o th N e g ro e s an d w h ite s t h a t w as t h e l o n g e s t i n t h e S t a t e . 9) From 1 8 9 0 -1 8 9 9 , t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n d e c r e a s e d , b u t t h i s w as ac c o m p a n ie d b y a n in c r e a s e i n p u p il e n ro llm e n t and a tte n d a n c e . 10) E ven th o u g h s t a t i s t i c s w e re s c a t t e r e d , t h e r e was i n d i c a t i o n o f a d i f f e r e n t i a l i n f a v o r o f w h ite s i n e x p e n d itu re s f o r e d u c a t i o n i n A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty . 1 1 ) O n ly b a s i c s u b j e c t s a c c o r d i n g t o s t a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s w ere o f f e r e d i n th e c o u n ty . �-4 3 - CH.4PTER I I I TIE PERIOD CF RECOVERY, 1 9 0 0 -1 9 1 6 T h is c h a p t e r i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n a f t e r V i r g i n i a h a d f r e e d i t s e l f f r o m t h e e a r l y i n f l u e n c e o f th e N o rth . A t t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y t h e r e w as a new a t t i t u d e i n t h e S o u th a n d a g ro w in g f e e l i n g o f d e m o c ra c y . I t s c i t i z e n s y/ere now f u l l y c a p a b le of s o c io - e c o n o m ic , p o l i t i c a l and e d u c a t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. In d u s tria l in t e r e s t s m u l t i p l i e d , c o t t o n m a n u f a c tu r i n g w as e x p a n d e d , an d r a i l r o a d s w ere b e i n g b u i l t . F o r t h e A m e ric a n N eg ro i n g e n e r a l , t h e s o c i a l an d e c o n o m ic i n j u s t i c e s to w a r d s h i s r a c e becam e m ore f r e q u e n t r a t h e r th a n fe w e r. R ac e r i o t s b e g a n t o sw e ep t h e c o u n t r y . The e x o d u s fro m t h e S o u th w as s t i l l i n f o r c e . In c o n tra s t t o t h e s e n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s upon t h e N e g ro w e re h e l p f u l s i g n s o f i n t e r e s t show n b y many who o f f e r e d t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e b y g i v i n g t h e N eg ro a much n e e d e d b o o s t 3 n t h e way o f c itiz e n s h ip tr a in in g . N eg ro l e a d e r s a n d s y m p a t h e ti c w h i t e s a t te m p te d t o o r g a n i z e t o w o rk f o r a b o l i t i o n o f f o r c e d s e g r e g a t i o n , f o r e q u a l e d u c a t i o n , o o m p le te e n f r a n c h i s e m en t o f t h e N e g ro , t h e e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e f o u r t e e n t h and f i f t e e n t h am en d m en ts, a n d t o f i g h t a g a i n s t ly n c h i n g an d la w le s s n e s s . O r g a n i z a t i o n s a t t e m p t i n g t o a i d t h e N eg ro w o re th e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d vancem ent o f C o lo r e d �-4 4 - P e o p l e , t h e U rb an L e a g u e , an d t h e Young T e n ’ s a n d Young Women’ s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a t i o n s . L abor o r g a n iz a tio n s a ls o began t o e x e r t t h e i r in f lu e n c e . I n t h e r e a l m o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e S o u th , g e n e r a l im p ro v e m e n t a p p e a r e d i n c a n y w a y s . crea se d . S ch o o l rev en u e s in T e a c h e r s ’ s a l a r i e s i n c r e a s e d i n c o m p a ris o n t o th o s e p a id in e a r l i e r y e a rs , f a c i l i t i e s f o r t r a in in g t e a c h e r s e x p a n d e d and c e r t i f i c a t i o n im p ro v e d . B u t, even t h o s e im p ro v e m e n ts w ere f a r b e lo w a c c e p t a b l e s t a n d a r d s . T h e re w as s t i l l a n a p p a l l i n g n e e d f o r s t a b i l i z i n g t h e s e an d o t h e r f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n . N eg ro s e p a r a t e s c h o o ls b e g a n t o r e v e a l c o n d i t i o n s w h ic h show ed t h a t t h e t r e n d s o f t h e t i n e s w id e n e d t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s o f t h e s e p a r a t e s c h o o l r a t h e r t h a n le s s e n e d th e g a p . W h ile t h i s v,-as a p e r i o d o f r e c o v e r y a s f a r a s V i r g i n i a ’ s s o c i a l , a n d e c o n o m ic s t a t u s w as c o n c e r n e d , i n many a r e a s p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n made l i t t l e a d v a n c e m e n t. A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty N eg ro s c h o o l s made no o u t s t a n d i n g p r o g r e s s , th o u g h o n t h e a v e r a g e t h o y a c h ie v e d m ore th a n many o f t h e r u r a l c o u n t i e s . I t i s d o u b tf u l t h a t e d u c a to rs o f A le x a n d ri a C o u n ty , i n t h i n k i n g o f N e g r o e s , to o k s e r i o u s ly th e id e a t h a t s u c c e s s f u l le a r n in g o n th e p a r t o f i t s N eg ro p u p i l s a n d s u c c e s s f u l t e a c h i n g cf t h o s e p u p i l s c o u ld o n ly b e a s s u r e d by th e p r o p e r e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y i n a p l a c e d e s i g n a t e d a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y b u i l t f o r s u c h o p p o r- �-4 5 - tu n ity . T h is -was one o f t h e w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e c o u n t y , b u t i t d i f f e r e d i n n o g r e a t d e g r e e fro m o t h e r c o u n t i e s in V irg in ia . N e a r ly a l l d a t a fro m t h e s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d i s c l o s e d t h a t N eg ro s c h o o ls w ere o v e rc ro w d e d a n d h a n d ic a p p e d b y h a v in g p o o r t y p e s o f s c h o o l p l a n t s p o o rly c o n s tr u c te d , u n a t tr a c t iv e , b a d ly k e p t, u n s a n ita r y a n d p o o r l y e q u ip p e d . S ch o o l B u ild in g s I t w as o b s e r v e d i n A le x a n d ria C o u n ty d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a t , i n s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e N eg ro s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n , t h e r e w as e v i d .n e e t o s u p p o r t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w as a d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n s c h o o l s f o r w h i t e s a n d s c h o o ls f o r N e g ro e s. The m i n u te s o f t h e s c h o o l b o a r d s t a t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g a b o u t w h ite s c h o o l s : " v / i t h i n th e l a s t fe w y e a r s some o f t h e f i n e s t g r a d e d s c h o o l h o u s e s o f m odern s t r u c t u r e an d a r c h i t e c t u r a l b e a u ty h a v e b e e n b u i l t i n t h e c o u n t y a s i n a n y p a r t of t h e s t a t e . A n o t h e r r e f e r e n c e w as t h e R ichm ond Tii .e s - D i s p a t c h . w h ic h l i s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g now b u i l d i n g s f o r w h ite p u p i l s : S o h o o l, room f o r s i x t e a c h e r s , .^ 1 2 ,0 0 0 ; "C o lu m b ia Ilume S c h o o l, § 8 ,0 0 0 ; I o u n t V ern o n A venue S c h o o l, f o u r ro o m s , new a d - "l i n u t e s o f t h e S c h o o l B o ard T r u s t e o s , " o p . c i t . , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 0 5 . ------------ �-4 6 - d i t i o n o f tw o room s a n d c o n c e r t h a l l b e in g c o n s tru c te d , $ 1 3 ,0 0 0 ; B a l l s t o n S c h o o l, f o u r ro o m s , $ 8 ,0 0 0 ; S a e g m u lle r , $ 3 ,5 0 0 ; C a rn e , $ 3 ,0 0 0 ; and G l e n c a r l y n , $ 3 , 0 0 0 . w2 T h e se w e re i n a d d i t i o n t o o l d e r s c h o o l s . As f o r t h e c o l o r e d s c h o o l s , K em per S c h o o l s t i l l r e m a in e d a s t h e o n ly b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e C o u n ty p r i o r to 1900. The i n c r e a s e d num ber o f p u p i l s a t K em per f o r c e d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o r e s o r t t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l m ethod c f r e n t in g b u i l d i n g s t o acco m m o d ate t h e o v e r f lo w o f e l e m e n t a r y sch o o l c h ild re n . I n 1 9 1 5 , M ac e d o n ia C h u rc h H a l l w as l e a s e d f o r t h a t p u r p o s e f o r t h e sum o f $ 1 0 .0 0 . y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 9 2 5 , t h e h a l l w as s t i l l b e i n g T w enty o c c u p ie d by t h e e x t r a p u p i l s fro m K em per. I t w as n o t u n t i l 1914 t h a t t h e s c h o o l b o a r d a r r a n g e d t o c o n s t r u c t a new J e f f e r s o n S c h o o l f o r N e g ro e s t o r e p l a c e t h e o ld one w h ic h h a d b e e n co n d e m n ed . room b u i l d i n g . I t w as a f o u r - c l a s s - A lth o u g h th e c o u n ty g a v e n o w o rk ab o v e th e e i g h t h g r a d e u n t i l th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e V i r g i n i a la w i n 1 9 1 7 , w h ic h p r o v id e d f o r h i g h s c h o o ls i n t h e s t a t e , J e f f e r s o n , a l o n g w ith w h ite e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls g a v e some s u b j e c t s i n " h i g h e r c l a s s e s " th r o u g h t h e f i r s t an d se c o n d y e a r s , w hane v e r t h e c a s e d em an d ed . H ig h s c h o o l w o rk , a t t h i s t i m e . * 3 R ichm ond T i .^ e a - D is p a t c h . A u g u s t 1 8 , 1 9 0 7 . 3 -in n u u l K o p o rta o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n ," o p . c i t . , 1 9 1 7 - 1 6 , g . 7 9 . “‘ �-4 7 - w as n o im m e d ia te p ro b le m I n t h e c o u n t y , s i n c e p u p i l s c o u l d e a s i l y a t t e n d p r i v a t e o r p u b l i c s c h o o ls i n t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia* 4 T h e re w as a t h i r d s c h o o l f o r N e g ro e s i n H a l l * s H i l l o f W a sh in g to n D i s t r i c t , b u t e a r l i e r r e p o r t s d id n o t r e v e a l w h e th e r i t v/as c o n s t r u c t e d o r r e n t e d f o r N e g r o e s . p ro b a b le t h a t i t , I t is t o o , w as a r e n t e d b u i l d i n g c o n v e r t e d f o r sc h o o l p u rp o se s. I t c a n b e g le a n e d fro m t h e s e f a c t s , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t : 1) T h e re w as an e m p h a s is on b u i l d i n g o f s c h o o ls f o r w h ite p u p ils . 2 ) C o lo re d p u p i l s w e re s t i l l a t t e n d i n g s c h o o ls i n in a d e q u a te r e n t e d s t r u c t u r e s . O n ly one s c h o o l w ith f o u r - room s v/as c o n s t r u c t e d f c r th e m d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 0 0 -1 9 1 6 . The T e a c h in g F o r c e The N eg ro t e a c h i n g f o r c e f o r t h e a f o r e m e n ti o n e d c o l o r e d s c h o o l s i n c r e a s e d fro m s i x i n 1900 t o n i n e o r 5 0 # i n 1 9 1 5 , w h ile i n t h e same p e r i o d t h e c o m p a ra b le w h i t e p e r s o n n e l i n c r e a s e d fro m t e n t o f i f t y o r 400^* re a s o n can be se e n in th e e n r o llm e n t. The o b v io u s N eg ro e n r o l l m e n t i n c r e a s e d fro m 4 0 1 i n 1900 t o 504 o r 2 5 .7 # I n 1 9 1 5 . '■ 'hite e n r o l l m e n t le a p e d fro m 485 i n 1900 t o 1 ,9 5 5 o r 4 N o te : T h e re w e re n o N e g ro p r i v a t e s c h o o l s i n A l e x a n d r i a C o u n ty , b u t s e v e r a l f o r w h ite p u p i l s . �-4 8 - 3 0 1 .1 # i n 1 9 1 5 . The s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t s a s show n h e r e w ere t h a t t h e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n h a d b eg u n a r a p i d i n c r e a s e and N e g ro p o p u l a t i o n re m a in e d l a r g e l y s t a t i c . A c c o rd in g t o c e r t i f i c a t e s o f t h i s p e r i o d , N eg ro t e a c h e r s c o n s t a n t l y im p ro v e d t h e i r t r a i n i n g . By 1 9 1 6 , a l l b u t t h r e e o f th e n in e te a c h e r s h e ld p r o f e s s io n a l c e r t i f i c a t e s . no w h ite t e a c h e r s h e l d c e r t i f i c a t e s ab o v e t h i s S in c e le v e l, c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s w e re a s w e l l q u a l i f i e d a s t h e w h ite t e a c h e r s . The s a l a r i e s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s p e r i o d i n 1905 w e re n o t much a b o v e t h e s a l a r i e s o f th e e a r l i e r p e r i o d , 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 9 , b u t tw o f a c t s w e re d i s c o v e r e d . F i r s t , t h a t a s c o m p a re d t o c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s o f t h e s t a t e , i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e , A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty e x c e e d e d t h e V i r g i n i a a v e r a g e , i n s p i t e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e s a l a r i e s o f t h e N e g ro a n d w h ite r a c e w i t h i n t h e c o u n t y . N eg ro s a l a r i e s i n t h e c o u n ty w e re an y w h ere fro m n i n e d o l l a r s t o f o u r t e e n d o l l a r s m ore t h a n V i r g i n i a a v e r a g e s . S e c o n d ly , t h e s c h o o l te r m s f o r V i r g i n i a t e a o l i e r s a v e ra g e d a b o u t s i x m o n th s , w h ile A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty t e a c h e r s t a u g h t e i g h t m o n th s, o r tw o . m o n th s l o n g e r , w i t h m ore s a l a r y i n te r m s o f m o n th s t a u g h t . Of g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e t e a c h e r s w ere t h e p a r e n t te a c h e r le a g u e s . The S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a ti o n r e a l i z e d t h a t c o o p e r a t i o n am ong p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s c o u l d p r o v id e f o r ea ch in d iv id u a l sc h o o l w hat th e s t a t e n o t s u p p ly . o r c o u n ty c o u ld T h e r e f o r e , i n 1 9 0 0 , t h e S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a ti o n �-4 9 - p e r m i t t e d t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h o s e l e a g u e s f o r s c h o o l im p r o v e m e n t. I t w as n o t u n t i l 1 9 1 0 , t e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e d e c r e e , h o w e v e r, t h a t A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty r e c o r d s r e v e a l e d su ch o r g a n iz a tio n s . O n ly one N egro p a r e n t - t e a c h e r le a g u e seem ed t o h a v e made p r o g r e s s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d . T hat le a g u e w as th e .Ke .p e r P a r e n t - T o a o h e r A s s o c i a t i o n , e s t a b lis h e d in 1912. Prom t h a t d a t e t o t h e p r e s e n t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a t te m p te d , a t Kemper S c h o o l, t o f u r n i s h s u p p l i e s , h e l p w i t h t h e lu n c h p r o g r a m , p r o v id e d e n t a l c a r e f o r n e e d y c h i l d r e n , f u r n i s h l i b r a r y b o o k s , a n d h e l p pay f o r m u s ic b e f o r e t h e s c h o o l h ad a r e g u l a r m u s ic p r o g r a m . T h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d a l i a i s o n b e tw e e n p a r e n t and t e a c h e r w h ic h w as i n v a l u a b l e f o r t h e n e e d s o f N eg ro p u p i l s w i t h i n t h e im m e d ia te v i c i n i t y o f Kemper S c h o o l. C rg a n iz a ti o n a l I n f lu e n c e s N eg ro t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s f e l t t h e n e e d o f m a k in g t h e i r s c h o o ls e f f e c t i v e b y p r o f e s s i o n a l m e a n s . S u p e rin te n d e n t W illia m T . H odges (1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 7 ) v ie w e d t h e o r g a n i z i n g o f t e a c h e r s a s an e f f e c t i v e c l e a r i n g - h o u s e f o r i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l p r o b le m s . T h u s , t h e T e a o h e rs * A s s o c i a t i o n came i n to b e in g under h is le a d e r s h ip i n th e y e a r 1 9 0 9 . The m in u te s o f t h e T e a c h e r s T a s s o c i a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s w as a lw a y s p l e a s a n t , a n d t h a t h e , u s a n i n d i v i d u a l , h a d o n a l l o c c a s io n s �R e n d e a v o re d t o r a i s e t h e s t a n d a r d s o f t h e s c h o o l s , 0 One o u t s t a n d i n g e f f o r t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n b e g a n i n 1 9 11 w hen t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e c u r e d a n i n d u s t r i a l t e a c h e r f o r N eg ro s c h o o l s , t h i s t e a c h e r b e in g l i a s V i r g i n i a Ran d o lp h , f i r s t J e a n e s S u p e rv is o r o f th e s t a t e o f V ir g in i a , S he w as em p lo y ed a s a n i n d u s t r i a l t e a c h e r i n t h e c o u n ty f o r tw o y e a r s , i n s t r u c t i n g i n i n d u s t r i a l s u b j e c t s . It w as u n d e r h e r a d v is e m e n t t h a t p l a n s w e re made t o a d d th e te a c h in g o f a g r i c u lt u r e i n th e c o lo re d s c h o o ls . The T e a c h e rs * A s s o c i a t i o n lia s s i n c e w id e n e d i t s s c o p e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t y to i n c l u d e a n y p r e s e n t - d a y m a t t e r s v i t a l t o th em a s t e a c h e r s . I t h a s becoxae a p a r t o f t h e N o r th e r n D i s t r i c t T e a o h o rs* A s s o c i a t i o n and t h e s t a t e T e a c h e rs * A s s o o ia tio n . T he v a l u e o f t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s may n e v e r b e d e t e r m in ed by o b j e c t i v e m e a n s , b u t o n e xaay s a f e l y c o n c lu d e t h a t n o m a t t e r how s m a l l o r g r e a t th e e f f o r t s o f t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , t h e i r i n f l u e n c e w as f e l t i n many i n t a n g i b l e w a y s , e d u c a tio n a l O p p o r tu n it y Cne it e m m e n tio n e d i n d i s o u s s i n g t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s b e a rs f u r t h e r e x p a n sio n i n t h i s c h a p te r . I t w as t h e p r o v i o i 2 i n u t e s o f t h e T e a c h e rs * A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 0 9 -1 9 1 7 , . �-5 1 - o f l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s f o r th e p u p i l s . The p a r e n t - t e a c h e r le a g u e seem ed t o h av e b e e n t h e o n ly m edium f o r s u p p ly in g books f o r l i b r a r y use a t t h i s tim e . L ib ra ry f a c i l i t i e s w e re l i m i t e d i n m o s t s o u th e r n p u b li c s c h o o l s , an d e s p e c i a l l y i n V i r g i n i a , s i n c e t h e y w ere n o t r e q u i r e d b y la w . V a rio u s a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f t h e p e r i o d r e v e a l e d many s c h o o ls w ith o n ly a fe w v o lu m e s , a n d i n m o s t N e g ro s c h o o l s t h e r e w e re n o n e . L i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s f o r N e g ro p u p i l s i n A le x a n d ria C o u n ty w e re m o s t i n a d e q u a t e . I n a d d i t i o n t o v e r y o ld v o lu m e s , and a l i m i t e d num ber o f th e m , t h e r e w e re no ro o m s c o m p le t e ly o u t f i t t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f l i b r a r y s e r v i c e in th e s c h o o ls . I n 1 9 0 7 , t h e r e w ere t h r e e room s w i t h l i b r a r i e s , w i t h a t o t a l o f 90 v o lu m e s , b u t w h e th e r t h e y w e re f o r w h ite o r c o l o r e d i s n o t know n. t h a t l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s w e re o f l i t t l e T hus, i t a p p e a rs c o n c e rn t o th e c o u n ty e d u c a t o r s . E d g a r ’ K n ig h t, a l o n g w i t h o t h e r V i r g i n i a e d u c a t o r s , /. h ad lo n g b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g o f t h e N eg ro a s a u s e f u l a n d c o n t e n t e d c i t i z e n who w o u ld b e an ec o n o m ic a s s e t t o t h e S o u th a n d t o t h e n a t i o n , l a y i n i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l tr a in in g .® A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty N eg ro p u p i l s w e re b e n e f i t e d b y t h i s i n f l u e n c e s i n c e l o c a l e d u c a t o r s i n - S o u th . A dgar .a l l a c e K n ig h t, I u b l i e E d u c a tio n i n t h e B o s to n : G in n a n d Company, 1 ^ 2 2 , p . 4i>7. �-5 2 - c o rp o ra te d i n t h e i r c u rric u lu m i n d u s t r i a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b je c ts . The c o u n ty o f A le x a n d r i a s t i l l c o n t in u e d t o r e q u i r e b a s i c s u b j e c t s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , w i t h ad d i t i o n s b e i n g a l g e b r a , b o o k k e e p in g , h i s t o r y of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , h i s t o r y o f V i r g i n i a , p h y s i o l o g y , and c h e m i s t r y . I.lu s ic a n d d ra w in g w ere a d d e d a s m in o r s u b j e c t s , a n d by 1 9 1 5 , m a n u a l t r a i n i n g an d d o m e s tic s c i e n c e w ere o f f e r e d . P h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n w as n o t y e t in c l u d e d . I t w as n o t i n d i c a t e d w h e th e r a l l s u b j e c t s w e re o f f e r e d t o w h ite an d N eg ro p u p i l s a l i k e , b u t t h e a d d i t i o n o f new s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s c h o o ls w e re g r a d u a l l y i n c l u d i n g s u b j e c t s w h ic h te n d e d t o make a w e ll - r o u n d e d i n d i v i d u a l who w ould b e c a p a b le o f m a k in g a l i v e l i h o o d . S in c e t h e t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e c o s t o f o f f e r i n g t h e s e s u b j e c t s w as s t i l l n o t u n if o r m fr o m y e a r t o y e a r i n t h e a n n u a l r e p o r t s , t h a t p h a s e o f t h i s s t u d y c o u ld n o t b e g iv e n in f u ll d e ta il. O n ly t h e y e a r s 1 9 1 5 an d 1916 c o u ld b e i n c lu d e d f o r c o m p a r is o n . R e c o rd s c o v e r i n g tw o y e a r s w e re in s u f f i c i e n t t o p o in t o ut any d i f f e r e n t i a l s in th e t o t a l c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n f o r N e g ro e s a n d w h i t e s , b u t t h e y d i d show t h a t t h e o o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n w as on t h e i n c r e a s e . T h e se w ore t h e f i g u r e s : I n t h e y e a r 1 9 1 5 , money e x p e n d e d f o r w h ite c h i l d r e n w as # 2 , 5 1 7 . 6 4 ; f o r N eg ro c h i l d r e n , .* 9 2 4 .7 9 . �-5 3 - Tiie y e a r 1 9 1 6 saw a n i n c r e a s e t o y 2 ,7 1 8 .5 3 f o r w h ite p u p i l s a n d a n i n c r e a s e t o v l , 4 3 3 . 3 3 f o r N eg ro p u p i l s . C om pared w i t h e a r l i e r y e a r s , t h e c o u n ty h a d im p ro v e d i n c a p i t a l o u t l a y f o r w h ite a n d N eg ro c h i l d r e n . A ll th e e d u c a tio n a l changes d e s c rib e d in t h i s o h a p t e r w a re a f f e c t e d b y a g e n e r a l e x p a n s io n a n d s h i f t i n g in p o p u la tio n . The U n ite d S t a t e s p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o le i n c r e a s e d t o a t o t a l o f some 91 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s . 1 0 .7 $ o r 9 ,8 2 7 ,7 6 3 w e re N e g r o e s . 7 A bou t I n t h e Comm onwealth o f V i r g i n i a i t w as show n t h a t t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n h a d e x p a n d e d , b u t t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f N eg ro p e r s o n s w as s l i g h t l y lo w e r. Y e t, i t r e m a in e d an im p o r t a n t f i g u r e , t o t a l l i n g 6 7 1 ,0 9 6 p e r s o n s . i n c r e a s e d t o 1 , 3 e 9 ,6 0 2 . The w h ite p o p u l a t i o n h ad A le x a n d r i a p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y w i t h V i r g i n i a a n d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , b u t t h e r e w as a d r o p i n t h e n um ber o f N e g ro p e r s o n s fro m 4 9 .8 # i n 1890 t o 2 5 .8 $ i n 1 9 1 0 . The p i c t u r e f o r A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty c h a n g e d w i t h t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 1 0 , f o r t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n h a d grow n l a r g e r b y a l m o s t 7 5 # , w i t h an i n c r e a s e fro m 675 t o 2 ,0 9 0 . N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n te n d e d t o e x p a n d g r a d u a l l y b u t n o t so r a p i d l y a s i n fo rm e r y e a r s . 8 1 4 o r 2 7 .9 # . 7 On t h i s d a t e t h e num ber w as T h is t r e n d w as r e f l e c t e d a l s o i n t h e num- U. S . C en s u s R e p o r t s , o p . c i t . , 1 7 8 9 -1 9 4 5 , �-5 4 - b e r s e n r o l l e d i n t h e c o u n t y w i t h o n ly a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e o f a b o u t 34 p u p i l s i n t h e p o t e n t i a l N eg ro e n r o l l m e n t i n 1910 o v e r 360 i n 1 8 9 0 . F o r t u n a t e l y , a l a r g e r p e r c e n t o f t h e N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n w as now e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l t h a n i n e a r l i e r y e a r s . T h e re w as a n i n c r e a s e fro m 4 3 .0 # i n 1890 t o 4 8 .4 # d u rin g t h i s p e r i o d . The w h ite e n r o l l m e n t s u r g e d upw ard fr o m 4 2 . 0 # i n 1890 t o 6 8 .8 # i n 1 9 1 0 . C o m p arin g t h e c o u n ty s t a t i s t i c s w i t h t h o s e o f V i r g i n i a , i t i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty by 1910 a c h ie v e d p e r c e n t a g e s v e r y c l o s e t o t h o s e o f t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a , w hose f i g u r e s w e re : F i f t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n e n r o l l e d an d 7 0 .9 # f o r w h ite p u p i l s . L ik e w is e i t w as s e e n t h a t d a i l y a t t e n d a n c e h a d im p ro v e d f o r N e g r o e s , t h e s t a t e m a i n t a i n i n g 3 3 .6 # an d t h e c o u n t y , 3 2 .0 % . C o n c lu s io n s draw n fro m t h e a b o v e s t a t i s t i c s r e v e a l th a t: 1) As com p ared t o 1690 r e o o r d s , th e N eg ro p o p u la t i o n o f A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty f o ll o w e d th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f V i r g i n i a i n t h a t t h e r e w as s t i l l a l a r g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N e g r o e s , b u t t h e y h a d d e c r e a s e d c o n s i d e r a b l y by 1910. 2) N eg ro e n r o l l m e n t a n d a t t e n d a n c e , a l o n g w ith w h ite e n r o l l m e n t a n d a t t e n d a n c e , h a d i n c r e a s e d b u t t h e p e r c e n ta g e o f N eg ro p u p i l s e n r o l l e d a n d i n a t t e n d a n c e w as s t i l l lo w e r th a n f o r w h i t e p u p i l s i n t h e c o u n t y . c e n ta g e e x c e e d e d t h e S t a t e a v e r a g e . H ow ever, t h i s p e r �-5 5 - A sum m ary s t a t e m e n t o f t h e P e r io d of R e c o v e ry , 1900- 1 6 r e v e a l e d : 1) From 1900 t o 1 9 1 6 , s u b s t a n t i a l l y a ll s c h o o l b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n w as f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f w h ite p u p ils . C o lo re d p u p i l s w e re s t i l l o b l i g e d t o a t t e n d c l a s s e s i n in a d e q u a t e r e n t e d s t r u c t u r e s . 2) L i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o l o r e d p u p i l s w e re p r a c t i c a l l y n o n e x i s t e n t , an d a l t h o u g h r e c o r d s show th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m any new s u b j e c t s i n t o t h e c u r r i c u lu m f o r t h e c o u n t y , t h e r e w as no i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e th e r a n y o f t h e s e w e re a c t u a l l y t a u g h t i n N eg ro c l a s s e s . 3) The Kemper F a r e n t - T e a c h e r L eag u e an d t h e T e a c h e r s * A s s o c i a t i o n w ere a c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s w o rk in g f o r im p ro v e d e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d a l i a i s o n b e tw e e n th e s c h o o l b o a r d an d t h e s c h o o ls th e m s e l v e s . 4) D e s p ite a n A l e x a n d r i a C o u n ty s a l a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l u n f a v o r a b l e t o N eg ro t e a c h e r s , t h e s e t e a c h e r s a v e r a g e d h i g h e r y e a r l y p a y th a n th e a v e ra g e f o r t h e S t a t e . T h i s w as d u e , i n p a r t , t o t h e e i g h t m o n th s c h o o l t e r m , tw o m o n th s l o n g e r t h a n t h e V i r g i n i a a v e r a g e . 5) C o m p a ra tiv e f i g u r e s f o r c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n c o u ld n o t be c o m p u te d fro m a v a i l a b l e r e c o r d s , b u t i t w as e v i d e n t t h a t c a p i t a l o u t l a y had in c r e a s e d . 6) The N e g ro p o p u l a t i o n o f A le x a n d r i a C o u n ty , fo llo w in g th e g e n e ra l p a t t e r n i n V ir g in i a , d e c re a s e d con s id e r a b ly by 1910. w as s t i l l l a r g e . H o w e v er, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f N e g ro e s 7) The e n r o l l m e n t a n d a t t e n d a n c e o f b o th w h ite a n d N eg ro s t u d e n t s i n c r e a s e d , b u t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f �-5 6 - c o l o r e d p u p i l s e n r o l l e d an d i n a t t e n d a n c e w as s t i l l lo w e r t h a n f o r w h ite p u p i l s o f A l e x a n d r i a C o u n ty . T h is p e r c e n ta g e d i d , h o w e v e r, e x c e e d t h e a v e r a g e f o r t h e s t a t e o f V irg in ia . �CHAPTER IV THE EARLY KEMP ERA - 1 9 1 7 -1 9 3 6 The y e a r 1917 m a rk ed t h e b e g i n n in g o f a p r o g r e s s i v e e r a i n A r l i n g t o n County"*- u n d e r S u p e r i n t e n d e n t F l e t c h e r Kemp. With, h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n came nu m e ro u s s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s w h ic h e n a b le d A r lin g t o n C o u n ty t o assum e t h e e n v i a b l e po s i t i o n o f t h e f i r s t r a n k i n g c o u n ty i n e d u c a t i o n i n t h e s t a t e o f V irg in ia . N e g ro e s a s a p a r t o f t h e c o u n t y r e c e i v e d m ore b e n e f i t s fro m t h e p r e s t i g e e s t a b l i s h e d by th e c o u n ty th a n in e a r l i e r p e r io d s . T h e se c h a n g e s d i d n o t a c t u a l l y b e g i n t o be e f f e c t i v e u n t i l 1 9 2 0 , f o r t h e p e r i o d 1 9 1 7 1919 b ro u g h t no im p o r ta n t c h a n g es o v e r th e p r e v io u s e r a , n o r w e re t h e r e many r e c o r d s t o i n d i c a t e a n y b a s i c im p ro v e m e n ts . As t h e new S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty was b e g i n n in g h i s te r m of o f f i c e , t h e im m e d ia te d u ty o f t h e n a t i o n was u p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t w ith E u ro p e a n c o u n t r i e s . W ith W orld v/ar I , t h e p ro b le m o f th e N eg ro w as t e m p o r a r i l y i g n o r e d i n t h e g r e a t e r c o n f l i c t o f w in n in g t h e w ar# How e v e r , t h e p ro b le m s o f t h e N e g ro w e re a t t h a t ti m e no l e s s s e rio u s . I n t h e Army, N eg ro p a r t i c i p a t i o n above t h e m e n ia l 1 1 A c t o f t h e -is s o m b ly . 1 9 2 0 , p . 3 4 3 . ( T h is a c t c h a n g e d t h e name o f A le x a n d ri a C o u n ty t o A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty t o a v o id c o n f u s i o n w i t h A le x a n d r i a C i t y . ) �-5 8 - l e v e l w as n o t d e s i r e d an d t h e r e w ere o b v io u s a t t e m p t s a t e x c lu s io n . On t h e i r r e t u r n t o t h e s t a t e s , N e g ro s o l d i e r s w e re f u r t h e r e m b i t t e r e d b y m o re o f t h e same d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t r e a t m e n t t h e y had e n d u r e d b e f o r e t h e v /a r, a l t h o u g h t h e y h a d f o u g h t t o make t h e w o r ld " s a f e f o r d e m o c r a c y .” L:any o f t h o s e who s t a y e d a t home w e re a p a r t o f a new m ig r a t i o n fro m t h e S o u th , due t o a l a b o r d e p r e s s i o n t h e r e , and a need f o r w o rk ers i n n o r th e r n in d u s tr y . T h e y , t o o , w ere v i c t i m s o f o n - t h e - j o b s e g r e g a t i o n an d e x c l u s i o n fro m c e r t a i n t y p e s of w o rk . The p e r i o d im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e c l o s e o f W orld War I f o u n d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s c o n v e r t i n g i t s e l f o n c e m ore i n t o a p e a c e f u l n a t i o n an d t r y i n g t o b r i n g a b o u t u n i t y am ong a l l n a t i o n s o f t h e w o r ld . F or s e v e r a l y e a rs th e c o u n t r y i t s e l f e n d u re d d o m e s tic u p h e a v a ls w h ic h w ere d i s tu rb in g . L y n c h in g s i n c r e a s e d , an d t h e S o u th , i n a t t e m p t i n g t o p r o t e c t i t s econom y, p e r m i t t e d t h e r e v i v a l o f th e K fu E lu x K la n . I n some o i t i e s t h e r e w e re r i o t s w here l a r g e g r o u p s o f N e g ro e s s e t t l e d . H ow ever, t h e h u m a n i t a r i a n e l e m e n t w as c o n s t a n t l y a t w o rk i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i k e t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d vancem ent o f C o lo r e d P e o p le , t h e U rb an L e a g u e , a n d s y m p a t h e ti c n e w s p a p e r s . N e a n w h ile , t h r o u g h o u t t h e n a t i o n , i n f l a t i o n h a d b e come n o m in o u s c l o u d , w h ic h b y 1 9 2 0 , h ad d e v e lo p e d i n t o t h e w o r s t d e p r e s s i o n t h e n known t o A m e ric a . A rlin g to n �-5 9 - C o u n ty , a a a p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n w as a l s o a f f e c t e d . G rad u a l l y th e c o u n try r e g e n e r a te d i t s e l f s o c i a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y in t o one o f th e m o st i l l u s t r i o u s e r a s o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . E d u c a t i o n a l l y , t h e r e w as a d v a n c e m e n t a l o n g w i t h s e t b a c k s f o r t h e N e g ro . >7hile t h e r e was lo w e r p o p u l a t i o n b e c a u s e o f m i g r a t i o n , i n h i s f a v o r w as t h e s t e a d y i n c r e a s e i n t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f th e e n r o l l m e n t . A l s o , w ith t h e m ovem ent o f many p e r s o n s t o u rb a n a r e a s t h e r e r e s u l t e d a n im p ro v em e n t o f e d u c a tio n a l o p p o r tu n ity . On t h e n e g a t i v e s i d e o f t h e l e d g e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s o u th e r n s t a t e s , N eg ro s c h o o l s w e re g e n e r a l l y i m p o v e r is h e d . The S o u th p e r s i s t e d i n a d i s p a r i t y b e tw e e n money e x p e n d e d f o r N e g ro e s a n d w h i t e s , and w h ile t h e J u l i u s H o se n w a ld F und fro m 1913 t o 1932 a i d e d N eg ro s c h o o l s , N e g ro e s t h e m s e lv e s w e re f o r c e d t o c o n t r i b u t e a s much a s 17% o f t h e i r own f u n d s t o m a i n t a i n s c h o o l s i n l o c a l a r e a s . C o m p a ra tiv e S u r v e y s The s t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e Common w e a l t h o f V i r g i n i a fro m t h e r e p o r t o f 1 9 1 7 - 1 8 , h a d b e g u n t o e m p h a s iz e i n e a c h r e p o r t t h e f a c t t h a t w h ile t h e im p ro v em e n t i n N e g ro s c h o o l s h ad b e e n n o t i c e a b l e , on t h e w h o le t h e y s u f f e r e d fro m t h e same d e f e c t s o f s c h o o l s f o r w h ite c h i l d r e n , b u t t o a m ore s e r i o u s d e g r e e . p n n u a l R e p o r t s o f th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f r u b l l o I n s t r u c t i o n , o p . o i t . , 1 9 1 9 -2 0 , p . SO. �-6 0 - By f a r , t h e m o s t im p o r ta n t d o c u m e n t i n t h e S t a t e r e l e a s e d i n t h i s p e r i o d , and w h ic h s e t t h e s t a g e f o r p r o g r e s s i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a w as p u b l i s h e d b y t h e V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n . I n 1 9 2 0 , i t p r e s e n te d t o th e p u b l i c t h e f i r s t c o m p a r a ti v e s u r v e y on V i r g i n i a p u b l i c s c h o o ls t o i n d i c a t e w h a t w as n e e d e d i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n . T h e i r re c o m m e n d a tio n s l e d to w a r d a g e n e r a l im p ro v e m e n t i n a l l p h a se s o f s t a t e e d u c a tio n . A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s e x h i b i t e d g r e a t f o r e s i g h t by b e g i n n in g t h e i r own s c h o o l s u r v e y a t t h e same tim e o f t h e s t a t e s u r v e y i n 1 9 2 0 . The r e a s o n c i t e d f o r c o n d u c tin g t h e l o c a l s u r v e y v/as t h e u n u s u a l g ro w th o f th e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n w h ic h f o r c e d t h e c o u n ty t o lo o k to w a r d s r e o r g a n i z i n g th e s c h o o l s y s t e m . The f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n w as t h e f o r m i n g o f a c o m m itte e c o n s i s t i n g of D r. W illia m K . 3 m i th e y , U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a , D r. M. L . Combs, S t a t e S u p e r v i s o r o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a t i o n , V i r g i n i a S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , a n d D r . E . E . W in d es, A s s o c i a t e S p e c i a l i s t of R u r a l H ig h S c h o o l s , U . S . B u re a u o f E d u c a ti o n t o c o n s i d e r q u e s t i o n s on th e h ig h s o h o o l l e v e l . F o r th o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l p ro b le m s t h e r e w as a o o m m itte e c o n s i s t i n g o f 1 ,'is s R a c h e l G re g g , V i r g i n i a S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a ti o n , M s s A n n ie R e y n o ld s , A s s i s t a n t S p e c i a l i s t i n E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l S u p e r v i s i o n , U . S . B u re a u o f E d u c a ti o n , a n d J r . W illia m R o b in s o n , A s s i s t a n t S p e c i a l i s t �-6 1 - i n T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g , U . S . B u re a u o f E d u c a ti o n , A p l a n w as a d o p t e d w h ic h was d e s ig n e d t o m e e t t h e e d u c a tio n n e e d s o f th e c o u n ty f o r a te n - y e a r p e r i o d . D u rin g t h a t t i m e , th e c u r r i c u l u m w as r e v i s e d o n t h e b a s i s o f th e 6 -3 -3 -p la n . The c o m m itte e s * s u r v e y f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d an u r g e n t n e e d f o r a n e x t e n s i v e b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m i n o r d e r t o b r i n g th e s c h o o l p l a n t s u p t o a d e s i r a b l e s ta n d a rd and t o p r o v id e f o r t h e r a p i d i n c r e a s e i n p o p u l a t i o n . T h is r i s e i n p o p u l a t i o n w as d u e t o a new ty p e o f r e s i d e n t s e t t l i n g i n t h e a r e a b e c a u s e o f th e n e a r n e s s o f t h e c o u n ty t o f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c i e s i n W a sh in g to n , D. C. The p o p u l a t i o n b e g a n t o e x p a n d n o t i c e a b l y i n 1 9 2 0 , w ith 1 3 ,3 3 3 w h ite s an d o n ly 2 ,5 0 7 N e g r o e s , who c o n s t i t u t e d 1 5 .6 # o f th e c o u n ty p o p u la tio n . By 1 9 3 3 , t h e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n h a d m ore t h a n d o u b le d , w i t h 3 0 ,2 5 5 p e r s o n s . 3 N e g ro e s m e a n w h ile w ere 3 ,8 4 5 i n n u m b e r, o r 1 2 .7 # . The w h ite s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , fro m 1917 t o 1936 n e a r l y d o u b le d fro m 3 ,5 1 0 i n 1917 t o 6 ,5 2 3 i n 1 9 3 6 . The N egro s o h o o l p o p u l a t i o n d ro p p e d fro m 1 ,2 4 0 i n 1917 t o 992 i n 1936. A lth o u g h i n 1917 s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n an d a t t e n d a n c e w ere lo w , i n 1 9 3 4 t h e s c h o o l s b o a s te d o f 9 3 # a t t e n d a n c e 3 ’’A n n u al R e p o r t of th e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o ard f o r t h e S c h o o l Y e a r E n d in g Ju n e 3 0 , 1 9 2 3 ," p . 2 0 . �-6 2 - f o r w h ite p u p i l s , a n d 9 2 $ f o r N e g r o e s , The s c h o o l b o a rd f e l t t h a t t h e p e r c e n t o f a t t e n d a n c e s h o u ld n o t b e lo w e r th a n 95$ and s tr o v e to m eet t h a t p e r c e n ta g e . I t w as a d m itt e d b y t h - s u p e r in te n d e n t o f A rlin g to n C o u n ty S c h o o ls t h a t " s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s i n t h e m a j o r i t y , a t t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h i s p e r i o d , w ere in a d e q u a t e an d f a i l e d i n many r e s p e c t s t o m e et t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s ta n d a rd s c h o o l b u il d in g s ,M ^ T h i s s t a t e m e n t b y m r. Kemp r e f e r r e d t o th e f a c t t h a t th e s c h o o ls f e l l f a r s h o r t i n h e a t, v e n t i l a t i o n , l i g h tin g , s a n ita r y f a c i l i t i e s and e q u ip m e n t, A r l i n g t o n N eg ro s c h o o l s , w h ic h v/ere now t h r e e i n n u m b e r, b e n e f i t e d fro m t h e t e n - y e a r p l a n t o a l l e v i a t e suoh c o n d itio n s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e p l a n b ecam e e v i d e n t in 1926. A t t h a t ti m e N eg ro s c h o o ls w e re v a l u e d a t 0 8 0 .0 0 0 . 0 0 , an d t h e y r e m a in e d a t t h e sam e f i g u r e th r o u g h th e y e a r 1929. From 1930 t o 1936 t h e r e v /e re i n c r e a s e s i n e q u ip m e n t w h ic h b r o u g h t t h e t o t a l e v a l u a t i o n t o 0 1 4 3 .2 2 4 .0 0 . The e v a l u a t i o n o f s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s was a l m o s t d o u b le d w i t h i n t h e d e c a d e . The v a l u e o f f u r n i s h i n g s an d e q u ip m e n t o f t h e N egro s c h o o l s t r i p l e d o v e r t h e sam e t e n - y e a r p e r i o d . F l o t c l i e r Kemp, o p . c i t . . p. 42. In 1926, �-6 3 - t h e c o s t h a d b e e n $ 3 ,2 0 0 ,0 0 ; i n 1 9 3 2 , i t w as $ 6 ,0 3 4 * 0 0 ; and i n 1936, j>9,0 1 0 .0 0 . i s a r e s u l t o f t h e c o u n ty s u r v e y a l o n g w ith o t h e r a d v a n c e s o f t h e p e r i o d , t h e r e w as t h e im p ro v e m e n t o f l i b ra ry f a c i l i t i e s . The A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l R e p o r t o f J u n e 1923 r e v e a l e d t h e d e p l o r a b l e l a c k o f l i b r a r i e s f o r a l l c h ild re n * I t was a l m o s t i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t p r a c t i - o a l l y a l l s c h o o ls w e re w i t h o u t a n y k in d o f l i b r a r y * T h ro o y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1 9 2 6 , t h e r e w as a t o t a l o f 2 ,8 0 0 v o lu m e s v / i t h i n t h e c o u n ty * o n ly 300 o f w h ic h w ere f o r t h e f o u r N eg ro s c h o o l s , a n d 2 ,5 0 0 f o r th e s i x t e e n 7fh.it e s c h o o ls . W h ile t h e a v e r a g e f o r w h i t e s c h o o ls w as a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 6 , t h e c o l o r e d l i b r a r i e s h e l d a n a v e r a g e c f 75 books. A t t h e e n d o f t h e p e r i o d i n 1 9 3 6 , 17 w h i t e s c h o o l s h a d a n a v e r a g e o f 607 b o o k s , a n d t h r e e N e g ro s c h o o l s , a n a v e ra g e o f 3 2 8 . T h is w as a d e c id e d im p ro v e m e n t o v e r t h e y e a r 1 9 1 7 , a l t h o u g h t h e num ber f o r N eg ro s c h o o l s w as s t i l l l e s s t h a n f o r th e w h ite s c h o o l s . I n b o th i n s t a n c e s , TTegro s c h o o lB h ad f e w e r b o o k s a n d no s t a n d a r d l i b r a r y . The u s u a l p r a o t i c e w as t o p r o v i d e s p a c e w i t h i n o n e c l a s s room f o r t h a t p u r p o s e . " A n n u a l R e p o r t o f t h e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty B o h o o l B o a r d ,” O P. c i t . , p . 2 0 . �-6 4 - Bond I s s u e s T h o se im p ro v e m e n ts w e re a c c o m p lis h e d b y t h e s a l e o f b o n d s t o i n c r e a s e s o h o o l re v e n u e * The p r i n c i p l e b e h in d t h e i s s u a n c e o f b o n d s w as t o s e l l th e m t o l a r g e c o r p o r a tio n s on a lo n g - te r m b a s is * I t w as a p u b l i c m o rtg a g e b y w h ic h t h o c o u n ty a r r a n g e d t o p a y b a c k th e m oney b o rro w e d p l u s i n t e r e s t i n i n s t a l l m e n t s . C o u n ty c i t i z e n s p a i d i n c r e a s e d t a x e s t o i n s u r e t h e s e p ay m en ts* The f i r s t b o n d e l e c t i o n v/as h e l d i n A r l i n g t o n D i s t r i c t on O c to b e r 9 , 1 9 2 2 , t h e p e e o n d o n J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 2 3 , i n W a sh in g to n D i s t r i c t , a n d t h e t h i r d i n J e f f e r s o n D i s t r i o t o n lla r o h 5 , 1923* Tho bond s a l e s e n a b le d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t w h ite h ig h s c h o o l , 1925* ,'a s h in g to n - L e e i n By J u n e 1 9 2 5 , f o u r t e e n m ore b u i l d i n g s w e re u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n . S c h o o ls c o n t in u e d t o grow s o t h a t b y 1930 a n o t h e r b o n d i s s u e w as r e q u i r e d . T h e re v/as a l s o a n o t h e r o n l a r c h 2 8 , 1 9 3 6 , th e y e a r o f t h e l a r g e s t b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m .6 7 as f a r a s c o u ld be d i s c e r n e d o n ly one o t h e r N eg ro s o h o o l , c a l l e d i.e m p e r, w as b u i l t i n 1922 a t a c o s t o f $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 . H ill. The s c h o o l b o a r d p r o p o s o d S um ner S o h o o l a t H a l l ’ s P a r e n t s h a d a l s o p e t i t i o n e d f o r a new * 1 5 ,0 0 0 .0 0 s c h o o l i n J e f f e r s o n D i s t r i o t , b u t n e i t h e r w as b u i l t 6 A ct o f th e is s o m b lv . 1 9 3 6 . p . 5 S 7 -C 9 . 7 " M in u te s o f th e S c h o o l Board*,’ 1 9 2 2 - 2 3 . �P a re n t-T e a c h e r L eagues A g r e a t d e a l t h a t w as a c c o m p lis h e d f o r N eg ro s c h o o ls came th r o u g h t h e c o n t in u e d e f f o r t s o f t h e p a r e n t - t e a c h e r le a g u e s . From 1920 t o 1923 t h e s e l e a g u e s a t te m p te d t o s u r r o u n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n w i t h a s f a v o r a b l e a n e n v ir o n m e n t a s c o u ld be g a i n e d f o r t h e i r m e n ta l , m o r a l, and p h y s i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t. S v e n a s l a t e a s 1 9 3 3 , a t L a n g s to n S c h o o l, f o r m e r l y c a l l e d S u m n er, t h e p a r e n t - t e a c h e r le a g u e p u r c h a s e d s u c h it e m s a s s c h o o l f l a g s , l i b r a r y b o o k s , c l o c k s , d u p l i c a t i n g m a c h in e , an d p r o v id e d a f r e e - l u n c h p ro g ra m f o r th e o h ild r e n . By 1950 s t a n d a r d s t h e s e it e m s w o u ld b e in c l u d e d i n t h e e q u ip m e n t s u p p l i e d b y t h e s c h o o l d e p a rtm e n t. The l e a g u e f o u n d i t n e c e s s a r y t o p e t i t i o n t h e s c h o o l b o a rd f o r f e n c i n g , la n d s c a p in g an d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f r e s t ro o m s i n t h e b a s e m e n t. I n sum m ary; 1 ) A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , a w a re o f i t s in g p o p u la tio n , s tu d ie d i t s expand e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s by a s u r v e y , w h ic h l e d t o t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m a i d e d by bond i s s u e s . 2) N e g ro s c h o o l s g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s a n d i n v a l u e o f e q u ip m e n t a n d b u i l d i n g s . O n ly one b u i l d i n g w as c o n s t r u c t e d f o r th em i n t h e f i r s t b u ild in g p ro g ram . 3) G ch o o l o f f i c i a l s w e re s lo w i n p r o v i d i n g n e c e s s a r y e q u ip m e n t f o r N eg ro s c h o o l s , an d p a r e n t t e a c h e r l e a g u e s c o n t r i b u t e d m any it e m s f o r p u p i l u s e . �- 66- P e r C a p i ta C o s ts I n c l u d e d i n t h e s c h o o l e x p a n s i o n p ro g ra m i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty w as a p l a n f o r t h e i n c r e a s e i n p e r c a p i t a e x p e n d i tu re s , A t t h e b e g i n n in g of t h i s p ro g ra m t h e c o u n t y r a n k e d s e c o n d h i g h e s t i n V i r g i n i a i n money e x p e n d e d f o r i t s p u p ils . B u t, c o n s i d e r i n g th e f a c t t h a t V i r g i n i a w as a s o u t h e r n s t a t e , i t was s t i l l i n a p o o r p o s i t i o n a s co m p ared t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s a s a w h o le . P e r c a p i t a f o r t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w as # 2 1 ,0 0 , f o r V i r g i n i a , # 1 2 .4 7 , and f o r # 4 6 ,6 7 i n t h e p e r i o d 1 9 2 4 -2 6 . A r lin g to n C ou n ty T h i s f i g u r e on A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty in c l u d e d e l e m e n t a r y a n d h ig h s c h o o l e x p e n d i t u r e s , 8 I n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty fro m 1926 t o 1 9 3 6 , i t w as fo u n d t h a t N e g ro p u p i l s re c e iv e d l e s s p e r c a p ita th a n w h ite s . F o r e x a m p le , i n 1 9 2 6 , $ 2 2 ,0 3 w as e x p e n d e d f o r a w h ite p u p i l , w h ile $ 1 7 .9 2 w as s p e n t f o r a N eg ro c h i l d . I n 1936, th e c o s t of e d u c a t i o n f o r one w h ite p u p i l w as # 2 6 .3 2 and f o r t h e N eg ro p u p i l , # 1 7 ,5 4 . N o t o n l y w e re t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw e en w h ite a n d N egro c o s t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t c o s t o f N eg ro i n s t r u c t i o n w as l e s s i n 1936 th a n i n 1 9 2 6 . A lth o u g h h ig h s c h o o l s u b j e c t s f o r N e g ro e s w e re n o t i n t r o d u c e d u n t i l 1 9 3 2 , i l s o n Gee and J o h n J . C o rs o n , A S t a t i s t i c a l S tu d y o f V i r g i n i a . U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a , 1 ^ 2 7 , p . 3$ and p . 1 4 6 . �-6 7 - t h e sam e g e n e r a l d i s c r e p a n c y e x i s t e d i n p e r c a p i t a e x p e n s e o u t l a y f o r N eg ro s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s a s i t d i d f o r N eg ro e l e m e n t a r y c h i l d r e n * T h u s , w h ile A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty r a n k e d w e l l a b o v e t h e V i r g i n i a a v e r a g e , f o r w h ite an d N eg ro c o s t s o f i n s t r u c t i o n , N e g ro p u p i l s r e c e i v e d l e s s su p p o rt p e r c a p ita th a n w h ite s . Improved Teacher Jtut us The V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C om m ission s p o k e s t r o n g l y o f t h e n e e d f o r im p ro v e d s t a t u s o f N e g ro t e a c h e r s i n e v e r y r e s p e o t , a n d A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , i n s p i t e o f i t s h i g h e d u c a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n i n V i r g i n i a , h a d much ro o m f o r im p ro v e 9 T e a o h e r s o f b o t h r a o e s , i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , ta u g h t m e n t. tw o g r a d e s , b u t i t w as o b s e r v e d i n 1 9 £ 4 , a t J e f f e r s o n N eg ro S c h o o l, one t e a c h e r t a u g h t g r a d e s 6 , 7 , a n d 8 . A t Ke p e r , one t a u g h t g r a d e s 4 , 5 , and 6 . T h ro u g h th e y e a r s , t h e g r a d e s p e r N e g ro t e a c h e r v a r i e d fro m tw o t o t h r e e , b u t g e n e r a l l y i n w h ite s c h o o l s , lo w e r g r a d e s w e re d o u b le d a n d i n N eg ro s c h o o ls u p p e r g r a d e s w e re d o u b le d . ’Y h ile i n l a r g e r w h ite e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s t h e r e w e re n o n t e a c h i n g p r i n c i p a l s , t h e N e g ro s c h o o ls e m p lo y e d " h e a d t e a c h e r s " who t a u g h t and a o t e d a s p r i n c i p a l s . U s u a lly , ^ V i r g i n i a d u c a t i o n C o i.m is s io n . P u b l i c e d u c a tio n i n V i r g i n i a , .ic h r.o n d : S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f . u b l i c p r i n t i n g , 1 9 2 8 , �- - th e s e p e rs o n s ta u g h t th e upper g ra d e s . The t e a c h e r lo a d p e r s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t w as one w h ite t e a c h e r f o r e v e r y 37 c h i l d r e n a n d one N eg ro t e a c h e r f o r e v e r y 48 c h i l d r e n . T h u s , N eg ro t e a c h e r s w e re n o t o n ly b u r d e n e d w i t h more c l a s s e s , b u t w ith a s o r i o u s l y o v e rc ro w d e d c o n d i t i o n i n t h e c la s sro o m . I n 1 9 2 3 , t h e S c h o o l B o a rd a d o p t e d a r e s o l u t i o n i n c o n n e c tio n w i t h a new s a l a r y s c a l e , w h ic h r e q u i r e d a l l te a c h e r s i n ju n i o r and s e n io r h ig h s c h o o ls t o b e c o lle g e g r a d u a te s , and i n e le m e n ta ry c o lo re d s c h o o ls to h av e a t l e a s t one y e a r o f n o rm a l t r a i n i n g , e f f e c t i v e a s o f Ju n e 2 0 , 1 9 2 4 .10 1 Then t h e f i r s t s a l a r y s c h e d u l e o f t h e c o u n ty a p p e a r e d i n 1924 (S e e A p p e n d ix , T a b le I ) i t w as o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e c o u n ty m a in ta in e d a s e p a r a t e s a l a r y s c a l e f o r w h ite s an d N eg ro es. E v i d e n t l y , s c h o o l o f f i c i a l s v/erc s t i l l o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e d i f f e r e n t i a l s am ong th e r a c e s e v e n th o u g h i n i t s a n n u a l r e p o r t o f 1923 t h e r e w as a s t a t e m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t o ne o f t h e m a in w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m was t h e " r i d i c u l o u s l y " lo w s a l a r i e s p a i d t h e t e a c h e r s . 11 T h e se f a c t s w ere r e v e a l e d fro m t h e s c h e d u l o a s r e g a r d s 10 A n n u a l H e p o rt o f t h e c i t . , p. 20. 11 I b id ., p . 20. A r lin g to n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o ard ." o p . — �-6 9 - d i f f e r e n t i a l s i n t h e s a l a r i e s o f t h e tw o r a c e s : T h e r e w as a d i f f e r e n c e o f ;1 0 0 .0 0 i n p r i n c i p a l ' s s a l a r i e s w ith 2 - 5 t e a c h e r s , th e w h i t e b e i n g ,1 ,1 0 0 .0 0 and t h e N eg ro b e i n g OlOOO.OO p e r anniua. The w h ite e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s b e g a n w i t h a ra in ln u n o f .* 9 5 0 .0 0 p e r annum an d N e g ro e s w i t h v 7 5 0 « 0 0 o r a d i f f e r e n c e o f $ 2 0 0 .0 0 . C e rtific a te s to t e a c h i n c o l o r e d e le m e n t a r y s c h o o l s w e re lo w e r th a n t h o s e re q u ir e d f o r w h ite s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s a l a r i e s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s w e re lo w e r . H o w e v er, s a l a r i e s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s com pared f a v o r a b l y w i t h t h o s e o f ti le s t a t e i n t h i s p e r i o d a s i n t h e e a r l i e r e r a s , a n d t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o im p ro v e . D oxey A. 12 W ilk e r s o n f o u n d , i n 1 9 3 0 , s t a t i s t i c s sh o w in g t h a t t h e a v e r a g e w h ite t e a c h e r ' s s a l a r y w as r o u g h l y ;9 0 0 .0 0 an d e x c e e d e d t h e N eg ro t e a c h e r ' s s a l a r y o f s l i g h t l y o v e r $ 4 0 0 ,0 0 b y 1 2 5 ^ . I n t h e sam e y e a r i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , t h e a v e r a g e N egro t e a c h e r ' s s a l a r y w as ^ 6 0 1 .0 6 . W h ile h i s s a l a r y w as a b o u t o n e - t h i r d l e s s th a n t h a t o f t h e w h ito t e a c h e r o f t h e c o u n t y , i t was o n e - h a l f m ore t h a n t h e g e n e ra l a v e ra g e o f th e s t a t e . The N eg ro t e a c h e r i n t h e c o u n ty w as s t i l l im p r o v in g h is tr a in in g . I n 1 9 1 7 -1 8 , no t o a o h e r c o l o r e d o r w h i t e ** D oxey . i l l c e r s o n , o p e c l a l P ro b le m s o f M acro Sdu oat l o n . a t a f f o tu d y Number 1 2 , advT eiory C om m ittee" on .E d u c a tio n , W a sK in g to n : CoVv rm u e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 9 , p . 3 4 . �-7 0 - p o sse sse d a c o lle g e d e g re e , o r c o l le g i a te p r o f e s s io n a l c e r tific a te , a n d f e w had f i n i s h e d n o rm a l s c h o o l . In 1926, t h e r e w e re f i v e N eg ro n o rm a l p r o f e s s i o n a l c e r t i f i c a t e s , s i x e le m e n ta ry and one f i r s t g ra d e c e r t i f i c a t e . The l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s o f t h e s t a t e w as i n th e l a t t e r g ro u p . T h e r e f o r e , N eg ro t e a c h e r s i n A r lin g to n w ith t h e l a r g e s t p r o p o r t i o n i n t h e n o rm a l p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p w e re h i g h e r r a n k i n g . T h e re w e re n o g r e a t c h a r g e s i n 1 9 3 0 , b u t s c h o o l b o a r d r e c o r d s m a in ta in e d t h a t th e t r a i n i n g of t e a c h e r s w as now a c t u a l l y f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f t e a c h i n g an d n o t s im p l y f o r c o l l e g e w o r k . To s u b s t a n t i a t e t h a t f a c t , i t w as fo u n d t h a t a l a r g e num ber o f c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s a t t e n d e d V i r g i n i a N o rm al r>d I n d u s t r i a l I n s t i t u t e , and l i n e r T e a c h e r s C o l l e g e , b o th t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g s c h o o ls . An i m p o r t a n t q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f a n y t e a c h e r i s p e r i e n c e g a i n e d i n h i s own p r o f e s s i o n . th e e x I t v;as fo u n d t h a t o f th e t w e l v e c o l o r e d t a c h e r s , n o n e h ad l e s s t h a n two y e a r s t e a c h in g e x p e rie n c e w ith in th e c o u n ty . S ix o f t h e tw e lv e h a d t a u g h t i n t h e c o u n t y s e v e n y e a r s o r m o re . The maximum num ber o f y e a r s of p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f a n y one t e a c h e r w as s e v e n t e e n . T h is i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e t u r n o v e r w as n o t g r e a t an d p o s s i b l y t h e t e a c h e r s w e re more o r le s s s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r p o s itio n s . i-'ince t h i s w as a p e r i o d o f e x p a n s i o n , i t w as l o g i c a l t c i q u ir e i n t o th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f s u p e r v is io n o f te a c h e r s . �-7 1 - The f i r s t p r o v i s i o n f o r a s u p e r v i s o r i n A r l i n g t o n County- s c h o o l s w a s i n 19S0 w i t h t h e a p p o i n tm e n t o f a w h ite s u p e r v i s o r o f P h y s i c a l E d u c a ti o n . I n 1921 a f u l l - t i m e w h ite e l e m e n t a r y s u p e r v i s o r w as e m p lo y e d , a l s o a m u sic s u p e r v is o r. I n 1 9 2 5 , a s u p e r v i s o r o f th e t h r e e p r im a r y c r u d e s w as a d d e d . Prom t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i g h s c h o o l w ork s u p e r v i s i o n w as a d m i n i s t e r e d j o i n t l y b y t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and s u p e r v i s i n g p r i n c i p a l s o f th e s c h o o l s . T h ro u g h t h e s e s s i o n 1 9 3 6 , t h e tw o w h i t s e l e m e n t a r y s u p e r v i s o r s w ere r e s p o n s ib le f o r a l l e le m e n ta ry s u p e r v is io n . A lth o u g h t h e s e s u p e r v i s o r s w e n t t o N e g ro s c h o o l s , i t w as g e n e r a l l y known th r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e t h a t s u p e r v i s i o n w as one o f t h e w e a k e s t e l e m e n t s i n t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e H e g ro , b o o a u s e o f t h e l a c k o f c o n s t r u c t i v e i n t o r o s t w h ic h i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h a t c a p a c i t y e x h i b i t e d to w a rd N eg ro s c h o o l s . Evi d e n c e p o in t e d t o t h e f a c t t h >t i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty a s u p e r v i s o r o f N eg ro s c h o o l s v « s s o r e l y n e e d e d , s i n c e w h ite s c h o o l s w e re c o n s t a n t l y d em anding t h e tim e o f t h e s e p e r so n s. . t t h e ti m e th e b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty r e a c h e d i t s h e i g h t a n d t h e p e r c a p i t a c o s t s w ere s t e a d i l y o n t h e i n c r e a s e , t h e r e w ere t r e n d s i n t h e U n ite d s t a t e s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e d a l l s t a t e s . The c o u n t r y h a d e m erg ed f r o m t h 8 d e p r e s s i o n a n d was now i n a new o r a c f ec o n o m ic p r o g r e s s . The p e r i o d o f t h e New D e a l, u n d e r t h e F r a n k l i n 0 . K o o s e v e lt �-7 2 - A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w as one i n w h ic h many N e g ro e s we r e a p p o in te d a s s p e c i a l i s t s an d a d v is o r s in v a rio u s d e p a r t m e n ts o f th e f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t. Many A m e ric a n s o f t h e o o lo r e d r a c e b e n e f i t e d g r e a t l y by t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a g e n c i e s t o a i d i n t h e r e c o v e r y fr o m t h e d e p r e s s i o n . Such a g e n c ie s w e re : The F arm S e c u r i t y A g en cy , t h e R a t i o n a l Y o u th A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t io n C o r p s , w h ic h g a v e young men j o b s i n w ork ca m p s, t h e P u b l i c "forks A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , fo p b u ild in g c o n s tr u c tio n , th e .‘ rk s F r o j e c t s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , fo w h ic h p r o v id e d f o r r e l i e f i n f o o d , c l o t h i n g a n d i n em p lo y m e n t, a n d t h e S o c i a l S e c u r i t y B o a r d , f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t c f o ld a g e a s s i s t ” ce and unem ploym ent b e n e f i t s . T h e se a g e n c i e s d i d n o t e l i m i n a t e s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e S o u t h , f o r i n many i n s t a n c e s t h e N eg ro m e t w i t h o u t r i g h t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , b u t m o st New D e a l’ m e a s u re s h e lp e d t h e N eg ro a l o n g t h e r o a d to w a r d f u l l c i t i z e n s h i p . In t u r n , N eg ro l e a d e r s g a i n e d new c o n f i d e n c e t o p r e s s f o r m ore s o c i a l and e c o n o m ic p r i v i l e g e s . T hey b e g a n t o l e a r n t h e im p o r ta n c e o f c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t s i n s t o r e s a n d b u s in e s s e s . When t h e Vagner A c t o f 1935 and th o ,'agos an d H o u rs B i l l o f 1938 a i d e d i n b r e a k i n g dow n b a r r i e r s a n d t h e C o n g re s s o f I n d u s t r i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n s s o u g h t t o o r g a n i z e w o r k e r s r e g a r d l e s s o f r a c e , t h e N egro b g a n t o f e e l a s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y w h ic h h a d no l i t t l e e f f e c t on th e �-7 3 - e n tire ra c e . W h ile a l l t h e s e t h i n g s w ere h a p p e n in g i n W a sh in g to n , D. C . , n o t f a r aw ay , i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s w e re t a k i n g p l a c e i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . I n 1 9 3 0 , a n A c t o f A ssem b ly w as p a s s e d p r o v i d i n g f o r o r g a n i z in g t h e c o u n ty u n d e r th e C o u n ty 13 m a n a g e r fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t. The la w p r o v id e d t h a t a n y c o u n ty o f th e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a w i t h m ore th a n 600 i n h a b i t a n t s p e r s q u a r e m i le may c h a n g e t o t h e C o u n ty m a n ag er fo rm o f g o v e rn m e n t a f t e r s u b m i t t i n g t h e p r o p o s a l t o q u a lif ie d v o te rs in an e le c tio n . On N ovem ber 30 o f t h e same y e a r , t h e e l e c t i o n w as h e l d an d t h e new f o r m o f g o v e rn m e n t w as a d o p t e d b y m a j o r i t y v o t e . The la w b e came e f f e c t i v e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 3 2 , a n d A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty b e came th e s e c o n d o o u n ty i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s t o o p e r a t e u n d e r t h i s fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t. The m a g i s t e r i a l d i s t r i c t s , A r l i n g t o n , J e f f e r s o n , a n d W a s h in g to n , w e re e l i mi n a t e d . The e f f e c t o f s u c h l e g i s l a t i o n on t h e e d u c a t i o n s t a t u s o f t h e c o u n ty w as im m e d ia te . School o f f i c i a l s , re a liz in g t h e im p o r ta n c e o f e d u c a t i o n i n a p r o g r e s s i v e c o u n t y , e x e r t e d a l l e f f o r t s t o b e g i n t o make t h e i r s c h o o l s c o m p a ra b le t o t h o s e i n t h e D i s t r i c t o f C olum bia a n d n e a r b y s u b u r b a n a r e a s . T h e i r e f f o r t s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r N eg ro p u p i l s , h o w e v e r, w e re e x tr e x a e ly s lo w and i n e f f e c t i v e . 13 l e t o f t h e A sse m b ly o f 1 9 3 0 , p p . 4 5 0 - 5 4 . �-7 4 - E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a N eg ro H ig h S c h o o l As e a r l y a s J u ly 1 7 , 1924, b e f o r e th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e w h ite '.'a s h in g to n - L e e H ig h S c h o o l, c o l o r e d c i t i z e n s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty b e g a n p e t i t i o n i n g f o r t h e e r e c t i o n o f a h ig h s c h o o l f o r N e g ro e s a s s o o n a s p r a c t i c a b l e . I t was p o s s ib le t h a t th e y f e l t a f i r s t ra n k in g c o u n ty o f t h e S t a t e s h o u ld h a v e t h e p r i v i l e g e o f s u c h a s c h o o l a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y la w i n 1915 a n d b y t h e c o u n t y i n 1 9 1 7 , It w as a l s o p r o b a b l e t h a t w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f h ig h s o h o o l s u b j e c t s t o G eo rg e H aso n S c h o o l, now a n n e x e d t o A le x a n d ri a C ity , th e y f e l t th a t th e in c r e a s e d need s of t h e i r c h i l d r e n w e n t bey o n d t h e e x i s t i n g e l e m e n t a r y f a c i l i t i e s . T h e ir c h i l d r e n s h o u ld n o t h a v e t o l e a v e t h e v i c i n i t y t o p u rsu e f u r t h e r t r a i n i n g . P e r h a p s t h e y w e re a l s o aw are o f t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e S m ith - L e v e r A c t o f 1 9 1 4 , th e S m ith H ughes A c t o f 1 9 1 7 , and th e G e o rg e Dean A c t, w h ic h r e s u l t e d in th e r e l e a s e of fu n d s b y th e s t a t e and f e d e r a l g o v e rn m e n t f o r s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r a l l p e r s o n s . L i t t l e o r no a c t i o n w as ta k e n on t h e p e t i t i o n s t o t h e s c h o o l b o a r d u n t i l t h e y e a r 1 9 3 2 , when J e f f e r s o n E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l w as made a j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l and i t s name c h a n g e d t o H o ffm a n -B o s to n i n memory o f t h e d e c e a s e d p r i n c i p a l s , 1 i s s E l l a B o s to n a n d h r . E dw ard H o ffm an . . o ne t e a c h e r w as a d d e d a n d t h e r e w e re 4 2 p u p i l s . O nly By 1 9 3 6 , �-7 5 - t h e num ber o f p u p i l s e n r o l l e d b ad d im in is h e d t o 3 0 , b u t n o m ore t e a c h e r s o f h i g h s c h o o l s u b j e c t w e re a d d e d . Wash in g t o n - L e e em p lo y ed 5 3 h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s f o r i t s p u p i l s . I t w as a s s u m e d , t h e n , t h a t one t e a c h e r t a u g h t a v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s o n t h e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l a n d t h a t c o u r s e s o f f e r e d i n f u l l y a c c r e d i t e d s c h o o l s w e re n o t a v a ila b le . I t w as b e l i e v e d , t o o , t h a t t h e d e c r e a s e i n e n r o l l m e n t w as d u e t o t h e a d m is s i o n o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s i n D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia S c h o o ls , s i n c e H o ffm a n -B o s to n w as n o t a c c r e d i t e d . A t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f h i g h s c h o o l c l a s s e s a t H o ff m a n -B o s to n , t h e p e r c a p i t a c o s t s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n o f N egro h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s w as l i t t l e m ore t h a n m oney e x p e n d e d f o r w h ite e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s . T h is f a c t f u r t h e r i n d ic a te d a li m it e d c u rric u lu m . re c e iv e d #2 5 .9 7 The w h i t e e l e m e n t a r y p u p i l p e r y e a r f o r i n s t r u c t i o n , w h ile t h e N egro h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l r e c e i v e d # 2 6 .0 9 . s t u d e n t r e c e i v e d # 4 0 .6 8 . The w h ite h ig h s c h o o l The y e a r s 1 9 3 4 -3 6 saw p e r c a p i t a c o s t s f o r N eg ro h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s a fe w c e n t s h ig h e r t h a n f o r w h i t e s , b u t i t s h o u ld b e p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n 1 9 2 6 , when W a sh in g to n -L e e b e g a n , t h e i n i t i a l p e r c a p i t a c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n w as # 8 4 .9 5 a n d a l t h o u g h b y 1934 i t w as lo w e r th a n f o r N e g r o e s , t h e y e a r s fro m 1926 t o 1932 saw h i g h e r a v e ra g e s f o r w h ite p e r c a p ita e x p e n d itu r e s . T h u s , i t w as s e e n t h a t : 1 ) The c o u n t y d i d n o t p r o v id e �-7 6 - f o r a N e g ro j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l u n t i l 1 9 3 2 # w ith one t e a c h e r a p p o in te d . 2) A lth o u g h a new h ig h s c h o o l was n e e d e d f o r c o l o r e d p u p i l s , i t w as n o t p r o v i d e d . E o ffm a n -B o s to n S c h o o l w as e n l a r g e d t o i n c l u d e h i g h s c h o o l s u b j e c t s . 3) T h e re w as d i s p a r i t y i n p e r c a p i t a c o s t s f o r N eg ro an d w h ite h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s w h ic h p o i n t e d t o i n e q u a l i t i e s i n th e p r o v is io n s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n . The f a c t s r e v e a l e d i n t h e E a r l y Kemp E r a t h a t : 1) A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , a w a re o f i t s e x p a n d in g p o p u l a t i o n , s t u d i e d i t s e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s by a s u r v e y , w h ic h l e d t o t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a b u i l d i n g p ro g ra m a i d e d b y bond i s s u e s . 2 ) N e g ro s c h o o ls g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s a n d i n v a l u e o f e q u ip m e n t an d b u i l d i n g s , e v e n th o u g h o n ly o ne b u i l d i n g w as c o n s t r u c t e d f o r th e m i n t h e f i r s t b u i l d in g p r o g ra m . 3 ) S c h o o l o f f i c i a l s w e re s lo w i n p r o v id i n g n e c e s s a r y e q u ip m e n t f o r N eg ro s c h o o l s , and P a r e n t - T e a c h e r L e a g u e s c o n t r i b u t e d many a r t i c l e s f o r p u p i l u s e . 4 ) Not o n ly w e re t h e r e i n e q u a l i t i e s b e tw e e n w h ite a n d N e g ro e d u c a t i o n a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , b u t t h e c o s t o f N eg ro i n s t r u c t i o n w as l e s s i n 1936 t h a n i n 1 9 2 6 . The same d i s c r e p a n c y e x i s t e d w i t h t h e N eg ro s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s fr o m 1 9 3 2 . W h ile A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty r a n k e d w e l l a b o v e th e V i r g i n i a a v e r a g e f o r w h ite an d N eg ro e x p e n d i t u r e s f ^ r e d u c a t i o n , N eg ro p u p i l s re c e iv e d le s s s u p p o rt p e r c a p ita th a n w h ite s . 5) The p u p i l l o a d f o r N eg ro t e a c h e r s w as 4 8 p e r t e a c h e r , w h ile t h e w h i t e �-7 7 - t e a c h e r s t a u g h t a n a v e r a g e o f 37 p u p i l s . 6) S a l a r i e s o f N eg ro t e a c h e r s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty w e re lo w e r b e c a u s e o f lo w e r c e r t i f i c a t e s t h a n t h o s e o f w h i t e s , b u t w h ile t h e i r s a l a r y w as a b o u t o n e - t h i r d l e s s t h a n t h a t o f th e w h ite t e a c h e r o f t h e c o u n t y , i t w as o n e - h a l f m ore t h a n t h e g e n e r a l a v e ra g e s a la r y o f th e s t a t e . 7) T h e re w as no N eg ro S u p e r v i s o r i n t h i s p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h one w as s o r e l y needed. 8 ) The c o u n ty d i d n o t p r o v id e f o r a N eg ro J u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l u n t i l 1 9 3 2 , w i t h one t e a c h e r a p p o i n t e d . 9) E ven th o u g h a new h ig h s c h o o l w as n e e d e d , i t w as n o t p ro v id e d . H o ffm a n -B o s to n S c h o o l w as e n l a r g e d t o i n c l u d e h ig h s c h o o l s u b j e c t s . 10) T h e re w a s a d i s p a r i t y i n p e r c a p i t a e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r N e g ro a n d v /h ite h i g h s c h o o l p u p i l s w h ic h r e s u l t e d i n s tr u c tio n * i n e q u a li tie s i n th e p ro v is io n s f o r i n �CHAPTER V THE LATER KEMP ERA, 1 9 3 7 -1 9 5 0 T h is f i n a l c h a p t e r m ig h t w e l l be c a l l e d th e p e r i o d o f g r e a t e s t p r o g r e s s to w a r d e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y . I t con s i d e r s t h e p r e s e n t s t a t u s o f N eg ro e d u c a t i o n i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty u n d e r S u p e r i n t e n d e n t F l e t c h e r Kemp. The p e r i o d w as one o f c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e p r o v i s i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s f o r N eg ro p u p i l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o n t h e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l . Y e t, w i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d m ore p r o g r e s s w as made i n V i r g in ia a n d i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty t h a n a t a n y o t h e r ti m e s in c e 1906. T h a t p r o g r e s s w i t h i n t h e c o u n t y v /as d u e t o a n a c t i v e c i t i z e n r y w h ic h b r o u g h t many c h a n g e s i n t h e s c h o o l s y s te m an d s u p p o r te d bond i s s u e s t o r a i s e fu n d s. The p e r i o d 1 9 3 7 -1 9 5 0 saw t h e R o o s e v e l t r e g i m e , w hich began in 1932, re a c h i t s h e ig h t. ,'ith t h e a i d o f t h e " l e t t e r " o r g a n i z a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t io n C o r p s , t h e Works P r o j e c t s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d t h e P u b lic Y o rk s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s i n q u i r y , t h e n a t i o n h a d c l e a r e d i t s e l f o f th e d e p r e s s i o n h a n d i c a p s . 3 y 1 9 3 7 , t h e r e w as s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f th e b a n k in g s y s te m an d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f so u n d c r e d i t . The N e g ro , h a v in g b e e n e n c o u ra g e d by i n c r e a s i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , aw ak en e d t o t h e a d v a n ta g e s a f f o r d e d him th r o u g h p o l i t i c s and c i v i c �-7 9 - o r g a n iz a tio n a l e f f o r t s . P o l i t i c a l l y , h e h a d many c h a m p io n s i n s u c h i n d i v i d u a l s a s W e n d e ll T '.'iilk ie , who s o u g h t t o u n i f y th e c o u n t r y a s w e l l a s t h e e n t i r e v /o r l d , w ith h i s p la n f o r "one w o r ld ," The p e o p l e o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty b e n e f i t e d fro m t h e n e w ly -fo u n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s m ore t h a n a n y o t h e r a r e a i n t h e S t a t e o f V i r g i n i a , b e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p o s i tio n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w h ic h w as c o s m o p o l ita n a n d c o n s t a n t l y e x p a n d in g . I n 1 9 4 0 , t h e r e w ere r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s fro m a l l s t a t e s an d fro m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s s e t t l i n g i n t h e co m m u n ity . S e v e n t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t , o r 1 1 , 5 1 4 , w ere g o v e rn m e n t w o r k e r s . T h e se p e r s o n s b r o u g h t w ith them t h e i r own i d e a s o f p r o g r e s s i v e n e s s w h ic h w e re t o b e f e l t k e e n l y th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n ty . I a n y o f t h e s e p e o p l e w e re o f t h e m i d d le a n d u p p e r ec o n o m ic c l a s s , a n d of h i g h e d u c a t i o n a l an d c u l t u r a l l e v e l . Few o f t h e s e p e r s o n s , i f a n y , w e re H e g r o e s , b u t t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e s e p e o p le i n g a i n i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e i r own c h i l d r e n u n d o u b te d ly h e l p e d th o n e g r o a l s o . The g ro w in g p o p u l a t i o n c r e a t e d a n im m e d ia te p r o b le m o f h o u s in g a n d s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s . R e a liz in g t h i s , th e new i n h a b i t a n t s b o g an t o a s t. c o u n ty o f f i c i a l s f o r im p r o v e m e n ts . v h il e th o p r o b le m o f h o u s in g and s c h o o l i n g w as a s a c u t e among H e g ro e s a s w i t h w h i t e s , t h e r e w ere fe w e r n e g ro e s th a n e v e r b e f o r e . T h e r e f o r e , i n c o m p a r is o n , �-8 0 - t h e w h i t e s p r e s s e d f o r m ore e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s th a n t h e N eg ro c i t i z e n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e N eg ro p u p i l b e n e f i t e d b y t h e e f f o r t s o f t h i s a c t i v e new , g ro u p o f w h ite c i t i z e n s . P o p u l a t i o n C hanges I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o com pare c h a n g e s i n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h i s p e r io d w ith p o p u la tio n o f e a r l i e r y e a r s . From 1 6 70 t o 1 9 3 0 , t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f A r l i n g t o n C ou n ty i n c r e a s e d 8 3 5 .6 $ . I n a c t u a l f i g u r e s , t h e t o t a l p o p u la t i o n w e n t fro m 3 ,1 8 5 i n 1870 t o 2 6 ,6 1 5 i n 1 9 3 0 . The p e r c e n t o f i n c r e a s e w as m ore t h a n t h r e e t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e o f 2 0 8 .3 4 $ o v e r t h e sam e p e r i o d o f t i m e . The 1940 c e n s u s r e v e a le d t h a t o v e r a te n - y e a r p e r io d , th e A rlin g to n C o u n ty p o p u l a t i o n d o u b le d t o 5 7 ,0 4 0 p e r s o n s . The N egro p o p u l a t i o n fro m 1870 t o 1940 w as p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y on a dow nward t r e n d . I n 1 870 i t w as 2,Q 10 o r 6 2 .7 $ o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n , w i t h t h e w h ite p o p u l a t i o n b e i n g 1 ,1 7 5 o r 3 7 .3 $ . By 1 9 4 0 , N e g ro e s c o m p r is e d o n ly 1 0 .6 $ , o r 6 ,0 4 2 o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f 5 7 ,0 4 0 p e r s o n s . T h e se s t a t i s t i c s i l l u s t r a t e d th e e x te n t o f p o p u la tio n changes i n t h e c o u n ty w h ic h g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d i t s e d u c a tio n a l s t a t u s . The s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n a n d e n r o l l m e n t f o ll o w e d t h e t r e n d o f th e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . By 1 9 3 7 , w h ite and N eg ro c h i l - �-8 1 - d r e n o f s c h o o l a g e w e re n o t o n ly a l m o s t e n t i r e l y e n r o l l e d in s c h o o l , b u t t h e p e r c e n t o f t h e a t t e n d a n c e w as e x c e p ti o n a l l y h ig h . F o r N e g ro e s i t w as 94# a n d f o r w h i t e s 9 5 # . The s t a t e a v e r a g e f o r N eg ro p u p i l s v/as o n ly 84 p e r c e n t . 1 From t h e y e a r 1 9 3 0 t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y , t h a t p e r c e n t h a s n e v e r d e c r e a s e d b e lo w t h e 9 0 # m a rk . A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty w as t o p - r a n k i n g i n t h i s r e s p e c t f o r b o t h N e g ro e s and w h ite s . I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o m e n tio n , a l s o , t h a t t h e p r e v i o u s f i g u r e s w e re b a s e d o n a s c h o o l t e r m o f 190 d a y s i n 1 9 3 7 . The num ber o f d a y s i n t h e s c h o o l t e r m h a s n e v e r b e e n b e lo w 181 d a y s . T h is w as c o n s i d e r a b l y a b o v e t h e s t a t e a v e ra g e f o r N eg ro p u p i l s o f 164 d a y s . P e r h a p s no o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a knew t h e p ro b le m o f t h e N eg ro i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n b e t t e r t h a n t h e S u p e r v i s o r o f N eg ro E d u c a t i o n , F r e d 1;. A le x a n d e r , who i n th e 1 9 3 7 -3 8 a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f t h e s u p e r i n te n d e n t o f p u b lic i n s t r u c t i o n d e v o te d c o n s id e r a b le sp a c e t o o u t l i n i n g t h e n e e d s o f N eg ro e d u c a t i o n . H is i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s w e re b r o a d e r t h a n e a r l i e r r e p o r t s , b u t t h e b a s i c f a c t s w e re e s s e n t i a l l y t h e sam e a s t h o s e o f t h e p e r i o d fro m 1 9 1 7 -3 6 . N eg ro p u p i l s s t i l l h a d 1 D avid T . B lo s e , s t a t i s t i c s o f E d u c a ti o n o f N e g r o e s . 1 9 4 1 - 4 2 , 1 9 4 3 -4 4 . S t a t i s t i c a l C i r c u l a r , F e d e r a l S e c u r i t y .g e n o y , U. B . o f f i c e o f E d u c a ti o n , /a s h i n g t o n , D. C. �- 02 - g r e a t n e e d o f new b u i l d i n g s , im p ro v e d e q u ip m e n t, b e t t e r s a l a r i e s f o r t e a c h e r s , h i g h s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s , b o th v o c a t i o n a l a n d a c a d e m ic c o u r s e s a n d im p ro v e d q u a l i t y o f in s tr u c tio n .^ I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e w as n e e d o f e n r o l lm e n t o f a l l N eg ro p u p i l s o f s c h o o l a g e a n d m ore r e g u l a r a t te n d a n c e . B e fo re a n y o f t h e a f o r e m e n ti o n e d n e e d s c o u ld be s a t i s f i e d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s w as a g a i n a t w a r . n a t i o n was m o b i l i z e d . The w h o le N eg ro s o l d i e r s a g a i n d i d t h e i r f u l l s h a re o f d e fe n d in g th e c o u n try . N eg ro c i t i z e n s d u r i n g W orld War I I w e re c o n s i d e r e d m ore a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e home f r o n t t h a n i n W orld War I . The O f f i c e o f P r i c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n an d t h e F a i r Em ploym ent P r a c t i c e s C om m ission w e re w o rk in g f o r c e s f o r t h i s I n t e g r a t i on. One o f t h e m o s t s e r i o u s p r o b le m s f o r a l l p e r s o n s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e w ar w as h o u s in g , e s p e c i a l l y i n c i t i e s w h e re p e o p l e m i g r a te d t o s h a r e ^in th e w ar e f f o r t . -A rlin g to n C o u n ty w as a t y p i c a l ex a m p le o f a boom ing s u r b u r b a n a r e a . E a r lie r i n th e p e rio d i t c a u g h t t h e o v e r f lo w o f c i t i z e n s who p r e f e r r e d a s u r b u r b a n a r e a t o t h e c i t y o f Y fa s h in g to n . Now, p e o p l e w e r e f o r c e d 2 2 im u a l s p o r t s o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f Pub l i o I n s t r u c t i o n , o p . c i t . , I9 3 y -U L . y . p.3. “ �-6 5 - t o come t o t h e c o u n ty b e c a u s e o f t h e a c u t e h o u s in g s i t u a t i o n i n t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia . N e a r ly a l l t h e m i g r a n t s w e re o f t h e w h ite r a c e . To make ro o m f o r th e m , a s v / e l l a s t h e e x p a n d in g a g e n c i e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t, n a m e ly , t h e P e n ta g o n an d Navy A n n ex , la n d b e l o n g in g t o N e g ro e s w as c o n f i s c a t e d an d t h e i r hom es a n d c h u r c h e s w e re d e m o lis h e d . T h is p a r t i c u l a r la n d , o l o s e s t t o W a s h in g to n , D. C . , s o l d f o r ^ 2 ,0 0 0 a n a c r e , a n d i s w o r th -? 2 5 ,0 0 0 . v ery l i t t l e h o m e s. now A lth o u g h N e g ro e s r e l i n q u i s h e d t h e i r l a n d , p r o v i s i o n w as made f o r r e b u i l d i n g t h e i r E x c e p t f o r tw o lo w r e n t p r o j e c t s , t h e P a u l Law- r e n c e D u n b ar an d C a r v e r H om es, t h e o n ly a l t e r n a t i v e v/as t o move i n t o one o f t h e t h r e e cro w d ed a r e a s f o r N e g r o e s , H a l l 's H i l l , G re e n V a l l e y , o r t h e v i c i n i t y o f H o ffm an B o s to n S c h o o l. G ro e n V a l l e y , t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u la te d a r e a , was t h e s c e n e o f t r a i l e r cam ps w h ic h h o u s e d m any o f t h e N e g ro p e o p le w hen a l l o t h e r s p a c e w as u n a v a i l a b l e . The t r a i l e r cam ps w ere e l i m i n a t e d a s s c o n a s s u i t a b l e h o u s in g w as p r o v i d e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e h o u s in g s i t u a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s now a p p e a r s t o b e g ro w in g w o r s e , a s s h o p p in g c e n t e r s a n d l a r g e h o u s in g u n i t s a r e e x p a n d in g y e a r l y , c o n su m in g c o m p le t e ly a n y s i t e s f o r N eg ro hom es. T h e se s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s h av e w i t h o u t d o u b t a d i r e c t b e a r i n g o n t h e f u t u r e o f p u b l i o e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . I f N e g ro e s a r e c o n t i n u a l l y l i m i t e d , a s �-8 4 - f u r a s liv in g c o n d itio n s a re c o n c ern ed , i t is lo g ic a l t o b e l i e v e t h a t a t som e f u t u r e d a t e t h e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n w i l l b e e o r e d u c e d t h a t t h e p r o v i s i o n s f o r s e p a r a t e s c h o o ls w ay n o l o n g e r b e f e a s i b l e . What w i l l b e t h e s o l u t i o n t o s u c h a p r o b le m , s e p a r a t e s c h o o ls a t g r e a t e x p e n s e , o r i n te g r a t e d s c h o o ls ? The f a c t s w h ic h f o l l o w i n t h e r e m i n d e r o f t h i s c h a p t e r may s u c c e e d i n g i v i n g some d i r e c t i o n t o a p o s s i b l e a n s w e r. T he ITegro e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls o f t h i s p e r i o d c o n t in u e d t o d e v e lo p a t a n o rm a l r a t e th r o u g h t h e f i r s t y e a r s w ith b u t tw o o u t s t a n d i n g a c h ie v e m e n ts o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e p e r i o d o f 1 9 1 7 -3 6 . The f i r s t a c h ie v e m e n t w as v e s t e d i n t h e a p p o i n tm e n t, a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s c h o o l y e a r 1 9 3 6 -3 7 , o f t h e f i r s t J e u n e s s u p e r v i s o r f o r t h e t h r e e ITegro s c h o o l s , K am por, L a n g s to n an d H o ffm a n -B o s to n 3 1 e m e n ta r y D e p a r tm e n t. T h is i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n o f N e g ro p u p i l s on t h i s l e v e l s h o u ld h a v e im p ro v e d w ith one w h o se p r im a r y i n t e r e s t s w ere w i t h t h e N eg ro r a c e a n d w hose s o l e d u t y w as t o g u id e t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s i n t h e s e s o h o o l s . The s e c o n d a c h ie v e m e n t w as t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a f o u r t h N eg ro e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l i n 1946 a f t e r s e v e a a l a u d i e n c e s w i t h t h e s c h o o l b o a rd by t h e K em per S c h o o l p a t r o n s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s s c h o o l , c a l l e d Kemper* A nnex, s u c c e e d e d i n a l l e v i a t i n g t h e cro w d ed c o n d i t i o n s o f e l e m e n ta r y p u p i l s h o u s e d i n O ld K em per S c h o o l. �-6 5 - The S c h o o l E x p a n s io n I s s a e I n 1 9 3 5 , p r i o r t o t h e a p p o in tm e n t o f t h e J e a n e s S u p e r v i s o r , t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o ls h a d b e e n a p p r o a c h e d b y v a r i o u s r e q u e s t s fro m p a r e n t s a n d P a re n t-T e a c h e r g ro u p s t o p ro v id e f a c i l i t i e s f o r N eg ro p u p i l s . j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l The A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o a rd p r o c l a im e d t h e H o ffm a n -B o s to n S o h o o l a j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n 1 9 3 2 , tw o y e a r s a f t e r t h e s c h o o l w as e n l a r g e d . T h e re w as one t e a c h e r i n s t r u c t i n g a l l s u b j e c t s o f f e r e d . The s c h o o l w as n o t a c c r e d i t e d a n d t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t a t t r a c t m any p u p i l s . A g a in , i n 1 9 3 5 , a p e t i t i o n w a s s e n t t o t h e s c h o o l b o a r d u r g in g an a c c r e d i t e d j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l o f t h e sam e c a l i b e r a s W a sh in g to n s c h o o l s . T h is s c h o o l w ould o f f e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s u b j e c t s e n u m e ra te d i n t h e p e t i t i o n : L a t i n an d F re n c h i n t h e 9 t h g r a d e , sev /in g a n d c o o k in g i n a l l t h r e e g r a d e s , b u s i n e s s f o r 9 t h g r a d e and h y g ie n e and p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n i n a l l th r e e g r a d e s . N ecessary e q u ip m e n t w as t o b e p r o v id e d f o r e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g , p r o v i s i o n s w e re t o be made f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g c h i l d r e n fro m o u t l y i n g d i s t r i c t s a n d new t e a c h e r s , s p e c i a l i s t s i n t h e i r own f i e l d , w ere t o b e a p p o i n t e d . The e n r o l l m e n t o f H o ffm a n -B o s to n J u n i o r H igh S c h o o l in d ic a te d th a t l i t t l e im p ro v em e n t w as made i n t h e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l , f o r i n 1 9 3 7 - 3 0 , t h e e n r o l l m e n t w as 11 p u p i l s . • �- 66- i n 1 9 4 0 , i t w as 1 8 , a n d i n 1 9 4 1 , t h e r e w e re 13 p u p i l s . B a s ie s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s u b j e c t s w e re g r a d u a l l y a d d e d fro m t h e y e a r 1 9 3 7 . The y e a r 194S saw t h e f i r s t g r a d u a t i n g c l a s s of 6 p u p i l s . The s c h o o l w as s t i l l u n a c c re d ite d . N o te w o rth y i s t h e f a c t t h a t i n 1 9 3 7 -3 8 t h e p o t e n t i a l h ig h s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t o f N e g ro s t u d e n t s i n t h e c o u n ty w as 246 p e r s o n s . T h e re w e re 64 p u p i l s e n r o l l e d on th e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l , t h e m a j o r i t y o f whom w ere o n t h e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l . The n um ber e n r o l l e d w as a l i t t l e m ore t h a n o n e - f o u r t h t h e p o t e n t i a l e n r o l l m e n t . The r e m a in d e r o f t h e s e p u p i l s w e re e i t h e r a t t e n d i n g j u n i o r an d s e n i o r h i g h s o h o o ls i n W a s h in g to n , D. C ., o r w e re n o t in sch o o l a t a l l . th a t I t w as o b v io u s fro m t h e s e f a c t s , t h e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty N eg ro h ig h s c h o o l w as n o t a t t r a c t i v e e n o u g h i n c u r r i c u l u m an d f a c i l i t i e s t o draw t h e r e m a in i n g t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l h ig h s c h o o l p o p u la tio n . H ence, i t ap p e ared t h a t : 1) s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e o n t h e e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l among N e g ro e s w as 9 4 # , c o n s i d e r a b l y above th e s t a t e a v e ra g e o f e 4 $ . 2) A J e a n e s s u p e r v i s o r w us em p lo y ed t o a i d t h e N eg ro t e a c h i n g s t a f f . 3) One new e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l f o r N e g ro p u p i l s was b u i l t i n 1 9 4 6 . 4 ) The s c h o o l b o a r d d i d v e r y l i t t l e to e q u a liz e f a c i l i t i e s f o r N eg ro s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s o t h e r t h a n t o e n l a r g e �-6 7 - t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t o h e u s e d f o r h ig h s c h o o l a n d t o h u il d a V o c a tio n a l b u il d in g . u n a c c r e d ite d , and i t 5) The s c h o o l w as s t i l l i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i t w as t h e r e a s o n why o n ly o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p o p u l a t i o n w as e n r o l l e d i n H o ffm a n -B o s to n S c h o o l. S u ch w as t h e s t a t u s o f N eg ro p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n when t h e A r l i n g t o n B ra n c h o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r th e A d v an cem en t o f C o lo r e d P e o p le , i n t h e y e a r 1 9 4 1 , b e g a n its lo n g s t r u g g l e t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s an d im p ro v e m e n ts l e a d i n g t o e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t y f o r N eg ro c h i l d r e n . A c o m m itte e , h e a d e d b y i . r s . E s t h e r C o o p e r, p r e s i d e n t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e b o a rd t o r e q u e s t a j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l a n d a s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l i n s e p a r a t e b u i l d i n g s , b o t h a c c r e d i t e d , an d w i t h a l l f a c i l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e v o c a t i o n a l , c o m m e rc ia l an d a r t d e p a r t m e n ts . R e c o rd s d i d n o t i n d i c a t e w h e th e r a n y im p ro v e m e n ts w e re made i n a p p e a s e m e n t o f t h e N eg ro r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , b u t i n 1 9 4 5 , a p r o p o s a l w as made b y t h e s c h o o l b o a r d t o ad d m o re ro o m s f o r s h o p , home e c o n o m ic s , a n d a gy m n asiu m , f o r t h e sum o f $ 8 0 ,0 0 0 . 0 0 . ^ A t th e w ritin g of th i s re p o rt t h e e x p a n s io n o f t h e s c h o o l i s s t i l l i n t h e p l a n n in g s t a g e 3 'L i n u t e s o f th e S c h o o l B o a r d , " 1 9 2 5 -1 9 4 9 , p . 166, �- - A new H o ffio a n -B o o to n E le m e n ta r y s c h o o l o f 6 c l a s s r o o m s is under c o n s tru c tio n . L 'h ile t h e KAAC? w as w a g in g i t s b a t t l e f o r e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s , a c o s m o p o l ita n g r o u p o f p o l i t i c a l - m i n d e d c i t i z e n s , known a s t h e A r l i n g t o n C i t i z e n s C o m m ittee f o r S c h o o l Im p ro v e m en t p r e s e n t e d , o n A u g u st 1 4 , 1 9 4 6 , a f o u r - p o i n t p ro g ra m l i s t e d f o r c i r c u l a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t y i n a n a t t e m p t t o o b t a i n 1 ,0 0 0 s i g n e r s f o r a new b o n d i s s u e o f $ 3 ,2 5 0 ,0 0 0 f o r s c h o o l im p ro v e m e n ts . T h is p la n w as f o r 1} e s t a b l i s h i n g k i n d e r g a r t e n f o r c h i l d re n o f f iv e y e a rs o f a g e , 2 ) a f u l l d a y s e s s i o n o f no l e s s t h a n 4& h o u r s f o r f i r s t a n d s e c o n d g r a d e s , 3) e x p a n s i o n o f f a c i l i t i e s s o t h a t t h e t e a c h e r l o a d w ould n o t e x c e e d 30 p u p i l s a n d f o r N e g ro c h i l d r e n . 4) a n e x p a n sio n o f f a c i l i t i e s By L a y 7 , 1 9 4 7 , th e o n e - th o u s a n d r e s i d e n t ta x p a y e r s s ig n e d t h i s p e t i t i o n and s e n t i t s r e s u l t s t o th e sc h o o l b o a rd . S in c e th e l a s t f o u r y e a r s o f t h i s s t u d y , f r o m 1 9 4 6 50 f o u n d t h e c h a n g e s i n N e g ro e d u c a t i o n o c c u rr in g on t h e s e c o n d a r y l e v e l , a n d s i n c e s o m any f a c t s w e re n e c e s s a r y f o r f u l l u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e l a t e r f i g h t f o r e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u ld bo g i v e n t o c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t i n g d u rin g t h i s ti m e . S e v e r a l r e p o r t s fro m t h e V i r g i n i a S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a ti o n s i n o o t h e D enny i i e p o r t o f 1 9 4 4 , h a v e a g r e e d o n t h e one b a s i c p r e m i s e , t h a t a com - �-8 9 - p r e h e n s i v e p ro g ra m o f p u b l i c s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n i s t h e i r g o a l. The n e e d s o f h i g h s c h o o l y o u th a r e s o v a r i e d , t h a t a c u r r i c u l u m s h o u ld be b r o a d e n o u g h t o m e e t t h e n e e d s o f a l l ty p e s o f p u p i l s . The t r e n d i n e d u c a t i o n i n th e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a w i t h i n t h e p a s t f i v e y e a r s h a s b e e n to w a rd a s t a t e - w i d e p ro g ra m f o r t h e im p ro v em e n t o f t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s y ste m . The e m p h a s is h a s b e e n to w a r d s t h e t o t a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f p u p i l s . E m p h asis lia s b e e n on v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n , im p ro v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r s t a t u s , im p ro v e m e n t o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s an d s c h o o l p l a n t s . R e g a r d in g N eg ro e d u c a t i o n , t h e r e h a s b e e n d e v e lo p in g a m ore l i b e r a l an d f a i r - m i n d e d p r o g ra m . V i r g i n i a ' s r a n k among S o u th e r n S t a t e s h a s show n m a rk e d im p ro v e m e n t. The A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o ls ra n k e d w e l l a b o v e many c o u n t i e s , b u t t h e r e w ere b a s ic d e f i c i e n c i e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n th e n e g ro c u rric u lu m , w h io h w o u ld p r e v e n t many p u p i l s fro m s a t i s f y i n g t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l n e e d s. H o ff m a n - D o s to n 's c u r r i c u l u m w as b a s e d on a g e n e r a l c u r r i c u lu m w h io h v/as c o n s i d e r e d t h e e a s i e s t s i n c e i t c o n s is te d of l i t t l e m ore t h a n b a s i c s u b j e c t s . I n c o m p a r is o n , W a sh in g to n -L e e h ad t h r e e c u r r i c u l u m s , g e n e r a l , a c a d e m ic a n d c o m m e rc ia l. I t w as a c c r e d i t e d b e c a u s e i t h a d , n o t o n ly p u p il e n r o llm e n t, b u t s u f f i c i e n t v a r i e t y o f c o u r s e s , a w e l l - e q u i p p e d l i b r a r y , a c a f e t e r i a an d e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r a c tiv itie s . IIo ffm a n -B o s to n la c k e d a l l o f t h e s e . I t w as �-9 0 n o t u n t i l 1 9 4 8 -4 9 t h a t t h e s c h o o l m e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a c c r e d i t a t i o n by th e s t a t e o f V ir g in i a . I t d i d n o t , h o w e v e r, m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e S o u th e r n A s s o c i a t i o n o f C o l l e g e s an d S e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s . by b o th g ro u p s . W a sh in g to n L ee w as a c c r e d i t e d T h u s , t h e r e w ere g e n e r a l l y b a s i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n o f f e r i n g s o f W a sh in g to n -L e e a n d H o ffm a n -B o s to n w h ic h p o i n t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t K o ffm a n -B o s to n w as a n i n f e r i o r s c h o o l i n m any r e s p e c t s , t h e b e s t i n d i c a t i o n b e i n g i t s n o n a c c re d ite d s ta t u s . T h e re w ere t h r e e w h ite j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s , D o lly K a d is o n , C la u d e S w an so n , an d Thom as J e f f e r s o n . w as a co m b in ed j u n i o r - s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l . W a sh in g to n -L e e I n 1 9 4 6 , w h ite s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s h a d a t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t o f 4 ,3 4 6 p u p i l s . I n 1 9 4 9 , t h e i r e n r o l l m e n t w as 4 , 7 8 8 . The one N eg ro s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l h o u s e d t h e e l e m e n ta r y , j u n i o r an d s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l d e p a r t m e n t s , w i t h a h ig h s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t o f 94 i n 1 9 4 6 , a n d 270 i n 1 9 4 9 . s c h o o ls . A l l w h i t e s c h o o l s w e re c o m p a r a t i v e l y new IIo ffm a n -B o s to n w as o r i g i n a l l y an e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l b u i l t i n 1 9 2 3 an d e n l a r g e d t o i n c l u d e h ig h s c h o o l c o u r s e s i n 1930. V /a s h in g to n -L e e , th e s c h o o l c o m p a ra b le t o IIo ffm an -B o s t o n , w as b u i l t i n 1925 a n d h a s 1 1 .9 a c r e s . s to r y b ric k s tr u c tu r e . I t is a th re e - I n 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 3 5 , a n d 1 9 4 2 , i t w as e n l a r g e d b y a d d in g c l a s s r o o m s , c a f e t e r i a , l i b r a r y a n d v o c a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g , w h ic h c o s t 3 1 1 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0 . I t has, a lso , an a th le tic f ie ld an d g r a n d s t a n d , c i n d e r t r a c k , g r i d i r o n an d t e n n i s c o u r t s . m a n -B o sto n i s a t w o - s t o r y none of th e s e s tru c tu re fa c ilitie s b u i l t i n 1941 a t a c o s t of except o n 5 .7 a 3 1 6 ,0 0 0 .0 0 . a c re s, v o c a tio n a l In H o ff- w ith b u ild in g , 1948, a te m - �-9 1 - p o r a r y tw o -ro o m s t r u c t u r e w as b u i l t t o h o u s e t h e p r im a r y g rad es. T h is e a s e d t h e cro w d ed c l a s s r o o m c o n d i t i o n i n t h e m a in b u i l d i n g . T hus, i t can be se e n t h a t b u il d in g s p r o v id e d f o r N eg ro h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s w e re l a c k i n g i n s ta n d a rd f a c i l i t i e s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e s c h o o l was s i m i l a r t o many o t h e r c o l o r e d s c h o o ls o f t h e s t a t e o f V i r g in ia . P e r C a p i ta C o s ts The g r e a t e s t c h a n g e f o r b o th e l e m e n t a r y an d s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l p u p i l s w as i n t h e t o t a l c o s t o f e d u c a t i o n p e r N egro p u p il e n ro lle d . In 1937, th e c o lo re d e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l c h i l d r e c e i v e d $ 2 0 .7 9 , w h ile t h e w h ite p u p i l r e c e i v e d $ 2 7 .2 4 . I n 1 9 4 8 -4 9 , t h e N eg ro e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e c e iv e d $ 1 1 3 .0 5 an d th e w h i t e , t h e p r o p o r t i o n w as s i m i l a r . ; 9 7 .4 0 . I n t h e h ig h s c h o o l F o r c o l o r e d h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s i n 1 9 3 7 , t h e c o s t o f h i s e d u c a t i o n w as $ 3 3 .3 0 , f o r t h e w h ite p u p i l , $ 3 5 .7 1 . I n 1 9 4 8 -4 9 , $ 1 5 2 .9 4 m s s p e n t f o r N eg ro p u p i l s on t h e h i g h s c h o o l l e v e l ; f o r w h i t e s , $ 1 4 0 .0 0 . The a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t N eg ro p u p i l s r e c e iv e d m ore m oney p e r c a p i t a i n 1 9 4 8 -4 9 i n b o th l e v e l s seem ed t o h a v e b een d u e t o t h e e m p h a s is on im p ro v em e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r N eg ro p u p i l s . R e g a r d le s s o f th e e a r l i e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n p e r o a p i t a e x p e n d i t u r e s , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t s c h o o l b o a r d o f f i c i a l s now r e a l i z e d t h a t �-9 2 - i t w as t h e i r d u ty t o p r o v id e f o r t h e n e e d s o f N e g ro p u p i l s o n t h e same b a s i s a s f o r w h ite p u p i l s . D e s p ite th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e w e re d i s c r e p a n c i e s w i t h i n t h e c o u n ty w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o f u n d s p r o v id e d N eg ro p u p i l s , A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty i n 1949 s t i l l h e l d f i r s t p l a c e o v e r o t h e r c o u n tie s in th e S ta te o f V ir g in ia . I t w as n o te w o r t h y , t o o , t h a t t h e c o u n ty w as s t i l l c o n tin u in g i t s p o lic y of p ro v id in g f r e e t e x t books to a l l p u p ils . h e n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty b e g a n t o i s s u e f r e e t e x t b o o k s i n 1 9 1 0 , i t w as t h e o n ly c o u n ty t o s e t t h e p r e c e d e n t . The B u i l d i n g P ro g ram I n an a t t e m p t t o r e d u c e t h e g a p b e tw e e n e d u c a t i o n o f w h i t e s a n d N e g r o e s , a n d t o p r o v i d e , a l s o , f o r t h e ex p a n d in g s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n , A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty i s s u e d tw o new b o n d s i n 1949 a s s t e p s i n a # 6 ,2 5 0 ,0 0 0 s c h o o l c o n s t r u c t i o n f i n a n c i n g p r o g ra m . T h e se bond s a l e s w e re i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d bond i s s u e o f 1 9 4 6 , i n t h e am ou n t o f # 3 , 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 . I n A u g u st 1 9 4 9 , a b o n d of # 1 ,7 7 6 ,0 0 0 w as s o l d a n d i n D ecem ber 1 9 4 9 , a s e o o n d , f o r # 2 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The p r o c e e d in g s w e re f o r t h e im p ro v e m e n ts o f som e s c h o o ls a n d th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f new s c h o o l s , a new H o ffm a u -B o s to n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l an d an e n l a r g e m e n t o f I I o f f n a n - B o s to n H ig h S c h o o l, t o i n c l u d e c a f e t e r i a , g y m n asiu m , e x t r a c l a s s ro o m s an d o f f i c e s , w ere in c l u d e d i n t h e p l a n . T h is w as �-9 3 - e n c o u r a g in g , a l t h o u g h t h e p l e a f o r a new h ig h s c h o o l b y p a r e n t s , a s m e n tio n e d p r e v i o u s l y , w as s t i l l u n a n s w e re d . Im p ro v e d T e a c h e r S t a t u s The s t a t u s o f th e N egro t e a c h e r i n t h e c o u n ty a t t h i s tim e w as p e r h a p s t h e h i g h e s t o f a n y p e r i o d . No N eg ro t e a c h e r a d d e d t o t h e s c h o o l s y s te m w as em p lo y ed w i t h l e s s th a n a c o l l e g i a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l c e r t i f i c a t e . The s c h o o l b o a rd h a d s e t u p a p o l i c y s i m i l a r t o t h a t i s s u e d by t h e S t a t e b e a r d i n 1 9 4 2 , t o a c c e p t t e a c h e r s w ith l o s s t h a n f o u r y e a r s c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g o n ly i n e v e n t o f a n e m e rg e n c y . T h e re w as n e v e r s u c h a n e e d am ong N egro t e a c h e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e s h o r t a g e o f w h ite t e a c h e r s r e q u i r e d t h e em p lo y m en t o f p e r s o n s w i t h o u t o o l l e g e d e g r e e s . Ar l i n g t o n C o u n ty , l i k e V i r g i n i a , r a n k e d f i r s t i n im p ro v e d t r a i n i n g o f i t s t e a o ile r s among s o u t h e r n s t a t e s . One t e a c h e r i n t h e h i g h s c h o o l d e p a r t m e n t o f lio ffm a n D o sto n S c h o o l h o ld a m a s t e r s 'd e g r e e . N e g ro e s w as 13.8$»; f o r w h i t e s , 4 b .G $ . The p e r c e n t a g e f o r A lth o u g h d a t a a s r e c e n t a s 1 9 4 8 -4 9 la v e n o t b e e n c o m p ile d f o r t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a , 1 3 4 8 -4 4 s t a t i s t i c s on t e a o h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m e d ia n t r a i n i n g f o r N eg ro h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w as a 4 b a c h e l o r 's d e g r e e . A c c o rd in g t o t h i s , A r l i n g t o n C ou n ty 4 W a lte r G . D a n i e l , " A v a i l a b i l i t y o f E d u c a tio n F o r N e g r o e s ," J o u r n a l o f hep.ro N d u o a tio n . V o l. AVI, h o . 3 , Summer 1 9 4 7 , p . 4 5 4 . �-9 4 - N e g ro t e a c h e r s w e re a b o v e a v e r a g e i n t r a i n i n g a n d c e r t i fic a tio n . The num ber o f t e a c h e r s h a d now i n c r e a s e d g r e a t l y i n th e c o u n ty . I n 1 9 3 7 , t h e r e w ere 109 w h ite e le m e n ta r y t e a c h e r s an d 14 N eg ro t e a c h e r s . I n t h e sam e y e a r t h e r e w e re 61 w h ite t e a c h e r s i n t h e h ig h s c h o o l a n d o n ly one N eg ro t e a c h e r . 3 y 1 9 4 9 , w h ite e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s h a d m ore t h a n d o u b le d i n num ber t o 2 2 1 , a n d N eg ro t e a c h e r s h a d i n c r e a s e d by a p p r o x i m a t e ly 5 0 # t o 20 p e r s o n s . In t h e h i g h s c h o o l d e p a rtm e n t t h e r e v /e re a l m o s t t h r e e t i m e s t h e num ber o f w h ite t e a c h e r s a s i n 1 9 3 7 , o r 217 p e r s o n s . N eg ro t e a c h e r s made t h e g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e fro m one i n 1937 t o 14 i n 1 9 4 9 . The s a l a r y p i c t u r e f o r t h e N eg ro t e a c h e r a p p e a r e d t o bo m o s t g r a t i f y i n g . The S t a t e B o ard o f S d u c a t io n h ad d e c l a r e d i n 1 9 4 4 t h a t "N e g ro t e a c h e r s a r e e n t i t l e d t o h a v e t h e i r c o m p e n s a tio n f i x e d w i t h o u t u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on a c c o u n t o f r a c e . . . . S u ch a c t i o n v i o l a t e s t h e F o u r t e e n t h Amendment o f t h e F e d e r a l C o n s t i t u t i o n . " 5 A lm o st i m m e d i a te l y , t h e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o ard c o r re c te d i t s s a l a r y i n o r d e r t h a t i t s N eg ro t e a c h e i ^ c e i v e e q u a l s a l a r i e s w ith w h ite t e a c h e r s . o u ld r e P re v io u s ly , B u l l e t i n S t a t e B o a rd o f E d u c a t i o n , V i r g i n i a S c h o o l L a v s , V o l. X XV II, N o. 3 , A u g u st 1 9 4 4 , p . 3 7 . �-9 5 - t h e r e w e re w id e s a l a r y d i f f e r e n c e s , e v e n th o u g h , th r o u g h t h e y e a r s , f r o n 1870 t o 1 9 4 4 , t e a c h e r s o f t h e c o u n ty r e c e i v e d s a l a r i e s h ig h e r th a n th e s t a t e a v e ra g e . I n c o m p a rin g t h e s a l a r i e s of b o t h w h ite a n d c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s i n 1946 w ith t h o s e o f t h e s t a t e , 6 i t w as r e v e a l e d t h a t Y /h ite t e a c h e r s o f V i r g i n i a r e c e i v e d an a v e r a g e o f * 1 * 6 0 5 .0 0 p e r annum and N e g ro e s ? 1 ,4 7 5 .0 0 . Y /hite an d o o lo r e d t e a c h e r s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty r e c e i v e d a minimum b a s i c s a l a r y o f * 2 ,2 0 0 f o r p e r s o n s w i t h o u t d e g r e e s and $ 2 ,4 0 0 f o r p e r s o n s w ith b a c h e l o r ’ s d e g r e e s . I n t h e o o u n ty t h e d i f f e r e n c e v/as a p p r o x i m a t e ly $800 m ore t h a n t h e s t a t e a v e r a g e f o r w h ite s an d $ 9 2 5 m ore f o r N e g r o e s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e w ere s a l a r y in c re m e n ts f o r in d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s f o r y e a rs o f e x p e rie n c e w h ic h o v e r a p e r i o d o f 16 y e a r s c o u l d i n c r e a s e t o $ 4 ,2 0 0 . I t w as i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty p a i d t h e h ig h e s t s a la r ie s in th e s ta t e o f V irg in ia . A le x a n d r i a C it y w as t h e o n l y o t h e r u r b a n a r e a p a y i n g t h e same b e g i n n in g b a s ic s a l a r i e s . More t h a n s a l a r y b e n e f i t s w e re t h e p r o v i s i o n s f o r t e a c h e r r e t i r e m e n t an d s i c k l e a v e . As i n o t h e r m a t t e r s o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e s c h o o l b o a r d e s t a b l i s h e d a n a d e q u a te r e t i r e m e n t s y s te m f o r i t s t e a c h e r s . A t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e D av id T . B l o s e , " S t a t i s t i c a l C i r c u l a r , " O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n , F e d e r a l S e c u r i t y A g en cy , 1 9 4 5 -4 6 . �-9 6 - s c h o o l te r m 1 9 4 8 -4 9 , a te a c h e r s * s i c k l e a v e p a y p l a n v/as i n s t i t u t e d fo llo w in g a s t a t e p ro p o se d p la n . D u rin g t h e f i r s t y e a r , t e a c h e r s a r e e n t i t l e d t o t e n d a y s s i c k le a v e w i t h f i v e d a y s b e i n g a d d e d e a c h s u c c e e d in g y e a r u n t i l a maximum o f t h i r t y d a y s h a s b e e n a c c u m u la te d . I t c o u ld b e s t a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t : 1) The s t a t u s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty N eg ro t e a c h e r s f a r e x c e e d e d t h a t o f t h e s t a t e a v e ra g e i n s a l a r y , t r a i n i n g , r e t i r e m e n t an d s ic k le a v e b e n e f i ts . 2) T hey w ere m ore n e a r l y c o m p a ra b le t o w h ite t e a c h e r s o f t h e same g r a d e l e v e l s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a n a t a n y o t h e r ti m e w i t h i n t h e s c o p e o f th e s tu d y . The ILLiCir' C o u rt C ase The e v e n t w h ic h g a v e t h e g r e a t e s t im p e tu s t o t h e m ovem ent to w a r d s e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y i n t h e c o u n ty w as t h e u ltim a tu m i s s u e d b y t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia i n 1 9 4 6 , w h ic h s t a t e d t h a t A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g s c h o o ls i n Y /a s h in g to n , D. C . m u s t p a y t u i t i o n . t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e NAACP, t h e T h ro u g h c o u n ty p a i d t u i t i o n f o r a l l p u p i l s i n j u n i o r an d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l . The f o l l o w i n g s c h o o l y e a r 1 947-48 n o t u i t i o n w as p a i d f o r j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s , b u t s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s w e re a llo w e d t o c o n t i n u e i n W a s h in g to n , D. C. w i t h t u i t i o n p r o v id e d by th e s c h o o l b o ard . �-9 7 - A s i t u a t i o n d e v e lo p e d i n J a n u a r y 1947 w h ic h n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a d e l e g a t i o n o f N e g ro c i t i z e n s h e a d e d b y L eon R ansom , a t t o r n e y f o r t h e NAACP, b e f o r e th e sc h o o l b o a rd . The p a r e n t s who w ere n o t em p lo y ed i n W a s h in g to n , D. C. w ere p a y in g f o r t h e t u i t i o n o f t h e i r c h ild re n . By F e b r u a r y 1 9 , 1 9 4 7 , t h e b o a rd g a v e i t s s e n t to p ay th e t u i t i o n o f th o s e c h ild r e n . co n I t a ls o de c i d e d t o c o n s i d e r f u r t h e r , t h e r e q u e s t f o r a d d in g n e c e s s a r y s u b j e c t s t o a t t r a c t t h e N eg ro p u p i l s t o H o ffm an -B o st o n H ig h S c h o o l. T h e n , a n o t h e r l o c a l N e g ro c i v i c g ro u p know n a s th e B u tle r - H o lm e s C i t i z e n A s s o c i a t i o n j o i n e d i n t h e e f f o r t s o f e q u a l i z a t i o n b y r e q u e s t i n g t h a t t h e new b o n d i s s u e , a s p la n n e d b y t h e A r l i n g t o n C i t i z e n s C o m m ittee f o r S c h o o l Im p ro v e m en t i n 1946 r e v i s e i t s p l a t f o r m t o i n c l u d e a new h ig h s c h o o l f o r N e g ro e s v /ith a n e n r i o h e d c u r r i c u l u m , an d e n l a r g e m e n t o f K em per and L a n g s to n E le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s . I n N ovem ber 1946 t h e bond i s s u e w as p a s s e d w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t s t o N eg ro E d u c a t i o n . On t h e o p e n in g d a y o f s c h o o l , S e p te m b e r 3 , 1 9 4 7 , h r s . E l e a n o r T a y lo r a t t e m p t e d t o e n t e r h e r d a u g h t e r , Con s ta n c e C a r te r , in V a sh in g to n -L e e w h ite h ig h s c h o o l i n t h e c o u n t y , a s H o ffm an -B oB ton d i d n o t o f f e r a l l th e c o u r s e s th e p u p il n eed ed . T h e se c o u r s e s w e re b u s i n e s s a n d d r e s s d e s i g n i n g , S p a n is h , p h y s i c a l e d u c a t i o n an d v o c a t i o n a l w o rk . �-9 6 - The p r i n c i p a l o f W a s h in g to n - L e e , L 'r . C la u d e 1.1. R ichm ond, d e n i e d t h e a d m is s i o n o f H is s C a r t e r on th e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e V i r g i n i a la w s an d t h e s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n r e q u i r e d s e g r e g a tio n . T h e re u p o n , t h e p u p i l im m e d ia te ly f i l e d s u it a g a i n s t t h e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o a rd . Cn N ovem ber 2 0 , 1 9 4 7 , r e a l i z i n g t h a t l i t t l e w as a c t u a l l y b e i n g d o n e t o e s t a b l i s h an a c c r e d i t e d N eg ro h ig h s c h o o l , th e NAACP s e c u r e d p r e m is s i o n fro m t h e J u d g e o f t h e F e d e r a l C o u rt i n A le x a n d r i a C i t y f o r D r. L r t i n D. J e n k in s o f .’a H ow ard U n i v e r s i t y t o b e g i n a c o m p a r a tiv e s u r v e y o f H offm an B o s to n and W a s h in g to n - L e e • W h ile t h e s u r v e y w as b e i n g c o n d u c te d , t h e m a t t e r of p ay m en t o f t u i t i o n o f N e g ro s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g W a sh in g to n s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s w as s t i l l a n i s s u e b e tw e e n N eg ro p a r e n t s a n d th e c o u n t y s c h o o l b o a r d . The s c h o o l b o a r d a n n o u n c e d , b e f o r e t h e o p e n in g of s c h o o l i n S e p te m b e r , 1 9 4 8 , t h a t i t w o u ld s t o p a l l t u i t i o n p a y m e n ts f o r N e g ro s t u d e n t s e x c e p t f o r s e n i o r s a t t e n d i n g W a sh in g to n s c h o o ls who n e e d e d a c c r e d ite d co u rse s t o e n te r c o lle g e . Cn J a n u a r y 2 7 , 1 9 4 8 , t h e p a r e n t s s e n t a d i r e c t i v e th r o u g h th e NAACP t o th e S c h o o l B o a rd , r e q u e s t i n g t h e c o n t in u a n c e o f t h e p o l i c y o f p a y in g t u i t i o n . I f th e h o a r d r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h e p a r e n t s w ere t o i n s t i t u t e a c o u r t i n ju n c tio n . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s n o t i o n , on F e b r u a r y 3 , 1 9 4 8 , t u i t i o n w as p a i d f o r 33 s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g W a sh in g to n s c h o o ls �-9 9 - The t u i t i o n f o r e a c h s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t w as •£194• 00 a n d f o r e a c h j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t $ 1 5 0 .0 0 . The t o t a l c o s t o f t u i t i o n f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s w as a p p r o x i m a te l y $ 6 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 . m e a n w h ile , t h e s c h o o l b o a r d a t t e m p t e d t o make im p r o v e m e n ts a t H o ffm a n -B o s to n s o t h a t p a y m e n t o f t u i t i o n w o u ld n o l o n g e r be n e c e s s a r y . T h e se im p ro v e m e n ts w e r e th e e n l a r g e m e n t and r e n o v a t i o n o f t h e l i b r a r y , w h ic h i n c l u d e d r e p l a c e m e n t o f a b lo w e r t y p e o f h e a t w i t h s te a m h e a t , w id e n in g o f t h e s t a g e i n t h e a u d i t o r i u m by f i v e f e e t , w i t h a commode and w a s h b a s i n p r o v id e d i n t h e room o f f fro m th e s t a g e . p ro v e d : H ow ever, t h e f o l l o w i n g t h i n g s w ore n o t im t h e home e c o n o m ic s a n d v o c a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g , and th e b u s in e s s d e p a rtm e n t. T h e re w ere n o p la y g r o u n d e q u i p m e n t, n o l o c k e r s , no s ta d i u m o r c a f e t e r i a . B e c a u s e o f t h e m in o r im p r o v e m e n ts , t h e s c h o o l b o a r d , c o n c e d in g t h a t m o s t o f t h e c h a r g e s o f t : i s s G a r t e r w e re c o r r e c t , made a te m p o r a r y a g re e m e n t w i t h t h e NAa CP t o a d ju s t f u r th e r th e m a tte r o f sc h o o l f a c i l i t i e s o u t o f c o u r t , p r o v id e d t h e s c h o o l b o a r d w ould b e g i n t o w ork to w a r d s f u r t h e r im p ro v e m e n t im m e d i a te l y . I n t h e m e a n tim e , t h e a t t o r n e y f o r t h e RAACP f o u n d t h e s e m in o r i i .p ro v e m sn ts s t i l l u n s a tis fa c to ry . T h e se im p ro v e m e n ts i n t h e s c h o o l , c o u p le d w ith t h e f a c t t h a t p a r e n t s c o u ld n o t c o n t i n u e t o e x p e c t t h e s o h o o l b e a r d �- 100- to f u r n is h t u i t i o n , s e rv e d to in c r e a s e th e h ig h s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t a t H o ffm a n -B o s to n . I n 1 9 4 8 -4 9 t h e r e w e re 182 p u p i l s i n g r a d e s 8 - 1 2 , an d f o u r s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n ts g ra d u a te d . The i n c r e a s e was c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r th e 64 e n r o l l e d i n 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 . H o w ev er, a t t h e o p e n in g o f s c h o o l , S e p te m b e r 1 9 4 8 , a p p r o x i m a t e ly a y e a r a f t e r t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h e C o n s ta n c e C a r t e r C a s e , n i n e N eg ro p a r e n t s s o u g h t u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t o e n r o l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n a t V /a s h in g tc n -L e e . The a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e s e p a r e n t s w as a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e C a r t e r r e q u e s t ;. As a r e s u l t , t h e s c h o o l b o a r d i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t o n S ep tem b e r 2 7 , 1 9 4 9 , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t i t w o u ld p a y t h e t u i t i o n o f $ 1 0 0 .0 0 p e r p u p i l f o r a n y N eg ro s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t w is h in g v o c a t i o n a l t r a i n i n g , a t K a n a s s a s R e g io n a l S c h o o l. One s t u d e n t h a d r e q u e s t e d t h i s t r a i n i n g . The a t t o r n e y s f o r i ’ i s s C a r t e r c o n t i n u e d t o p r e s s t h e . s u i t w h ic h w as o r i g i n a l l y s c h e d u l e d t o b e b r o u g h t up i n c o u r t on F e b r u a r y 7 , 1 9 4 9 . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e p o s t p o n e m e n t w as made i n o r d o r t h a t t h e s c h o o l b o a r d c o u ld make its own s u r v e y i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e J e n k i n s r e p o r t , t o p r o v id e e v id e n c e f o r th e c o u r t . T h is s u r v e y w as c o m p ile d d u r i n g t h e summer b e f o r e t h e t r i a l . t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n ts i n t h e I t is s ig n ific a n t c a se d id n o t in c lu d e s u p e r in t e n d e n t Kemp who h a d b e e n d e f e a t e d i n o f f i c e a f t e r a 3 0 - y e a r te r m a s h e a d o f A rlin g to n C o u n ty P u b l i c S c h o o l s . In h is �- 101- p l a c e w as t h e new s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , U r . W illia m A . E a r l y , an d n e w ly e l e c t e d b o a r d m e m b ers, L'.rs. E l i z a b e t h C a m p b e ll, c h a i r man o f t h e B o a r d , E rw in R« D r a h e in , 0 . G le n S t a h l , C o li n L c P h e rso n , and C. E , T u t h i l l . T h e se w e re t h e f i r s t t o b e e l e c t e d u n d e r t h e new ay s t e n o f e l e c t i n g b o a r d m em bers v o te d upon b y c i t i z e n s o f t h e c o u n ty . T h u s , on S e p te m b e r 6 , 1 9 4 9 , a l m o s t tw o y e a r s a f t e r th e f i l i n g of t h e o r i g i n a l s u i t , t h e t r i a l o p en e d a t t h e F e d e r a l C o u rt f o r th e E a s te rn D i s t r i c t o f V ir g in ia in A le x a n d ri a C i t y , w ith L aw ren c e W. D o u g la s , Comm onwealth A t t o r n e y , a s c o u n s e l f o r t h e d e f e n s e o f th e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l S y s te m . L eon A . Ransom and Jam e s 3 . Cobb r e p r e s e n t e d t h e p l a i n t i f f , C o n s ta n c e C a r t e r . J u d g e A l b e r t V . B ryan p re s id e d . On F r i d a y , D ecexiber 8 , 1 9 4 9 , J u d g e B ry an d i s m i s s e d t h e c a s e o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t no d i s c r i m i n a t i o n h a d b e e n p r o v e d a n d t h a t W a sh in g to n -L e e a n d H o ffm a n -B o s to n p u p i l s w e re g iv e n s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . He s t a t e d f u r t h e r , t h a t nThe F o u r t e e n t h Amendment t o th e C o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s p r o v i d e s t h a t a l l c i t i z e n s m u s t r e c e i v e fro m t h e S t a t e i n e q u a l m e a s u re i t s p r o t e c t i o n and b e n e fit. B u t n e i t h e r t h e same n o r s i m i l a r t r e a t m e n t i s commanded b y th e am en d m en t. v a le n t. It E q u a l i n i t s e y e s m eans e q u i i s o b v io u s t h a t i d e n t i c a l t r e a t m e n t w ould n o t c a r r y t o e v e ry c i t i z e n e q u a l p r o t e c t i o n o r e q u a l b e n e f i t s �- 102- u n d e r la w . . . . " A lm ost a m onth l a t e r , on J a n u a r y 7 , 1 9 5 0 , A t t o r n e y R an som f i l e d a n a p p e a l a g a i n s t d i s m i s s a l o f t h e c o u r t s u i t w i t h t h e F o u r t h C i r c u i t C o u r t o f A p p e a ls i n R ichm ond, V i r g i n i a . Cn L a y 3 1 , 1 9 5 0 , J u d g e r o r r i s a* S o p o r o f t h o A p p e ll a te C o u r t , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w ith J u d g e s D obie and P a r k e r , r e v e rs e d th e o r d e r o f Ju d g e B ry a n . T h e y u p h e ld th e a p p e a l i n s t a t i n g t h a t ’’The b u r d e n s i n h e r e n t i n s e g r e g a t i o n m u st b e n e t by t h e 3 t a t e w h ic h m a i n t a i n s t h e p r a c t i c e . " e Judge S o p o r t h e n o r d e r e d Ju d g e B ry a n t o n o t i f y A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty SOhOol o f f i c i a l s t h a t e q u a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r N eg ro h ig h school p u p ils m ust be p ro v id e d . S e p te m b e r 8 , 1 9 5 0 . J u d g e B ry a n d i d s o on I n t h i s m a n n er t h e e f f o r t s o f t h o s e p e r s o n s who f o u g h t f o r e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r N e g ro p u p i l s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty w ore f i n a l l y r e a l i z e d . I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e L a t e r Kemp K ra h a s shown t h a t : 1 ) A t th e b ^ r i n n i n g o f t h i s e r a a J e a n e s S u p e r v i s o r w as em p lo y ed t o g u id e t e a c h i n g i n th o f o u r N e g ro e l e m e n ta r y s c h o o ls . 2) One new o le m e n ta r y s c h o o l w as b u i l t , b u t o n ly m in o r im p ro v e m e n ts w er c o lo re d h ig h s c h o o l. The j made i n th e m ain b u i l d i n g o f t h e I n 1 9 4 1 , a V o c a t i o n a l b u i l d i n g h ad a s h i n g t o n l o s t . F r i d a y , D ecem ber 9 , 1 9 4 9 . I b i d . , June 1 , 19 5 0 . �-1 0 3 - b een c o n s tr u c te d , b u t i t needed e n la r g in g . 3) N eg ro p u p i l s b e n e f i t e d by bond i s s u e s o f 1949 w h ic h in c l u d e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a new H offm an-13os t o n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a n d p r o v i s i o n s f o r im p r o v in g t h e p r e s e n t h i g h s c h o o l . 4 ) The p e r c a p i t a c o s t p e r N eg ro c h i l d w as h i g h e r i n 1 9 4 8 4 9 t h a n p e r w h ite c h i l d b e c a u s e o f t h e u r g e n c y o f e l i m i n a t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s i n N eg ro p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e c o u n t y . 5 ) S c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e o f N eg ro p u p i l s te n d e d t o r e m a in ab o v e th e 9 0 $ l e v e l . 6) T he N e g ro h ig h s c h o o l r e m a in e d u n a c c r e d i t e d b e c a u s e o f in a d e q u a t e f a c i l i t i e s a n d s m a l l e n r o l l m e n t , due t o th e l a r g e n u m b er o f A r l i n g t o n p u p i l s i n a t t e n d a n c e a t W a s h in g to n , D . C . s c h o o l s . 7 ) N eg ro t e a c h e r s , a f t e r 1 9 4 4 , s u f f e r e d no d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n s a l a r y a n d r e t i r e m e n t b e n e f i t s a n d t h e y w e re t h e f i r s t t o p r o f i t fro m t h e s i c k l e a v e p a y p l a n . h ig h e s t p a id c o u n ty te a c h e r s i n V i r g i n i a . T hey becam e t h e 8 ) The t r a i n i n g o f c o l o r e d t e a c h e r s w as a b o v e t h e s t a t e m e d ia n t r a i n i n g o f a b a c h e lo r’s d e g re e . T h ir te e n and e i g h t - t e n t h s p e r c e n t of t h e N egro h i g h s o h o o l t e a o h e r s h e l d m a s t e r s 1 d e g r e e s . 9) S e v e r a l c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s a i d e d i n e d u c a t i o n a l im p ro v e m e n ts , b u t t h e A r l i n g t o n B ra n c h o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f a r t h e A d v an cem en t o f C o lo re d P e o p le made t h e m o st s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n i n i t s e f f o r t s t o a c h ie v e th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r N e g ro y o u th by w in n in g a n a p p e a l i n th e C o u r t o f A p p e a ls i n Ilio h a o n d w h ic h o r d e r e d t h e s o h o o l b o a r d t o e q u a liz e so h o o l f a c i l i t i e s . �-1 0 4 - CHAPTER V I VALUATION OF THiS STUDY Summary P u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t l i e U n ite d S t a t e s h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e p r e c J .s e t h a t a d e m o c r a ti c fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t d e p e n d s f o r i t s f u l l v a l u e an d e f f e c t i v e n e s s upon c i t i z e n s s u f f i c i e n t l y tr a i n e d t o u n d e rs ta n d an d d i r e c t t h e i r l i v e s i n t o s o c i a l , ec o n o m ic a n d c i v i c c h a n n e ls w h ic h w o u ld e n a b l e th e m t o r e a l i z e f u l l y t h e i d e a l s o f d e m o c ra c y a s o u t l i n e d b y t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n * Y e t, a t te m p ts a t e s t a b l i s h i n g e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r e d u c a t i o n f o r e v e ry o n e huvo n o t a lw a y s b e e n s u c c e s s f u l * N e g ro e s i n p a r t i o u l u r h a v e b e e n l i m i t e d i n some ways in a l l s t a t e s in t h e i r o p p o r tu n itie s f o r f u l l p a r tic ip a t i o n in th e l i f e o f a m e r i c a , b u t t h e S o u th i s t h e s p e c i f i c s e c t i o n w h ere p r e j u d i c e an d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n h a v e b e e n d e e p ly r o o t e d i n t h e l i v e s of t h o s e p e r s o n s who w ou ld k e e p th e N eg ro i n i l l i t e r a c y an d I g n o r a n c e by e d u c a t i o n a l co m placenoy* The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f e v a l u a t i n g i m p o r t a n t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t r e n d s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e d a n o v e r a l l v ie w o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g r o e s , f i r s t i n t h e S o u th e r n S t a t u s , t h e n i n V i r g i n i a , and f i n a l l y �-1 0 5 i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s tu d y h a s b e e n t o c o l l e c t p e r t i n e n t d a t a r e l a t i v e t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n th r o u g h th e s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i o d s 1 8 7 0 -1 9 5 0 . I t i s h o p ed t h a t s i n c e t h i s i s t h e f i r s t s t u d y o f th e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e N egro i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , i t w i l l p r o v i d e a good b a c k g ro u n d f o r a n y f u t u r e r e s e a r c h t h a t m i g h t d e v e lo p i n t h i s a r e a o f e d u c a tio n o r i n c l o s e ly r e l a t e d f i e l d s . The b a s i s m ethod o f t h i s s t u d y h a s b e e n h i s t o r i c a l. I m p o r t a n t p r im a r y s o u r c e s h av e b e e n a c t s , s t a t u t e s , r e c o r d s o f l e g i s l a t i o n , r e c o r d s , m i n u te s and a n n u a l r e p o r t s o f s t a t e a n d c o u n t y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , m in u te s an d r e p o r t s o f c i v i c a n d e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and i n t e r v i e w s w i t h r e s i d e n t s and e d u c a t o r s . S e c o n d a ry s o u r c e s h av e b ee n g e n e r a l an d s t a t e h i s t o r i e s , p e r i o d i c a l s , an d s u r v e y s an d r e p o r t s f o r o f f i c i a l e d u c a t i o n b o d ie s o f th e c o u n t r y . T h e se w ere s u b j e c t e d t o th e s ta n d a rd s o f c r i t i c i s m . F i n d in g s 1 . N eg ro c i t i z e n s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty h a v e a lw a y s a tte m p te d t o s e c u re t r a i n i n g f o r t h e i r c h i ld r e n a t e v e ry o p p o r t u n i t y a s e v id e n c e d b y t h e i r w h o le h e a r te d a c c e p ta n c e o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n t h e e a r l i e r y e a r s , b y th e a c t i v e e ffo rts o f p a r e n t - t e a c h e r l e a g u e s , and by t h e c o u r t c a s e in re c e n t y e a rs . 2 . T h e re w e re n e v e r e n o u g h s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s t o h o u s e �-1 0 6 s u f f i c i e n t l y t h e N e g ro e l e m e n t a r y and h ig h s c h o o l p u p i l s i n a tte n d a n c e , o f te n n e c e s s i t a t i n g th e r e n t i n g o f s t r u c t u r e s f o r c la s s e s * 1893. No s c h o o ls w ere c o n s t r u c t e d fro m 1870 t o One tw o -ro o m b u i l d i n g w as p r o v id e d i n 1 8 9 3 , a n o t h e r b u i l d i n g i n 1 9 1 4 , one i n 1 9 2 2 , a n d one i n 1 9 4 6 . The p r o v i s i o n o f new a n d im p ro v e d b u i l d i n g s o c c u r r e d o n ly a f t e r e x tre L s u rg en cy . 3 . The N eg ro t e a c h e r , a l t h o u g h s u f f e r i n g fro m i n e q u a l i t i e s , h a s e n jo y e d a b e t t e r s t a t u s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty th a n i n m ost V ir g in ia c o u n tie s in m a tte r s of t r a i n i n g , c e r t i f i c a t i o n , e x p e rie n c e , s a l a r y and r e t ir e m e n t b e n e f i t s . I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e r e w e re no n o rm a l s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s , b u t b y 1 9 1 6 , t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e N e g ro t e a c h e r s h e l d n c r m a l p r o fe s s io n a l c e r t if ic a te s . I n 1 9 5 0 , a l l N eg ro t e a c h e r s h e l d b a c h e l o r ’ s d e g r e e s , o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t , a n d one h e l d t h e m a ste rs* d e g r e e . In 1944, a l l s a la r y d is c re p a n c ie s b e tw e e n N e g ro an d w h ite t e a c h e r s w e r e e r a s e d b y s c h o o l b o a r d ru lin g . 4 . N e g ro t e a c h e r s o r g a n i z e d i n t o an a c t i v e , p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p t o im p ro v e t h e i r s c h o o l s an d t h e i r t e a c h i n g e ffe c tiv e n e s s . I n 1 9 1 1 , t h e y s o u g h t, w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , t h e s e r v i c e s o f I i s s V i r g i n i a R a n d o lp h t o g iv e i n s t r u c t i o n i n i n d u s t r i a l s u b j e c t s t o N egro p u p i l s . T h is w as a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t N e g ro t e a c h e r s , a w a re o f th e l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l c u r r i c u l u m , w o rk ed to w a rd i t s im p ro v e - �5 . A f u l l - l e n g t h s c h o o l t e r m f o r N eg ro p u p i l s h a s b e e n m a in ta in e d fro m t h e e a r l i e s t y e a r s o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . The s t a t e a v e r a g e f o r many y e a r s w as f a r l e s s t h a n e i g h t m o n th s , w h ile A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty s e s s i o n s w e re a lw a y s fro m e i g h t t o e l e v e n m o n th s , a f t e r t h e o n ly s h o r t te r m o f f i v e m o n th s i n 1 8 7 0 - 7 1 . T h is w as s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e a l o n g e r te r m i n s c h o o l w o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t p u p i l s w o u ld , o f n e c e s s i t y , be e x p o s e d t o m ore e d u c a t i o n o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d o f ti m e th a n t h o s e a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l f e w e r m o n th s i n t h e y e a r . 6 . P o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e s o f N eg ro p u p i l s w ere g r e a t e r in e a r l i e r y e a rs . N eg ro es. I n 1 8 7 0 , t h e r e w e re 3 6 8 w h i t e s a n d 554 O nly 16# o f t h e e l i g i b l e 5 9 .7 # o f th e N eg ro p o p u l a t i o n w as e n r o l l e d i n s c h o o l . By 1 9 0 0 , h o w e v e r, i t w as a p p a r e n t t h a t N eg ro s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n w as o n t h e d e c r e a s e , b u t s c h o o l e n ro llm e n t and a tte n d a n c e g a in e d . By 1 9 4 0 , t h e a t t e n d a n c e o f N e g ro p u p i l s h a d r e a c h e d 9 4 # . 7 . The c u r r i c u l u m o f t h e N eg ro s c h o o ls m e t t h e m i n i mum r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e s t a t e o f V i r g i n i a i n t h e p e r i o d 1870 t o 1 8 9 9 . T h o se r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n s i s t e d o f s p e l l i n g , r e a d i n g , w r i t i n g , a r i t h m e t i c , gram m ar an d g e o g r a p h y . How e v e r , t h e h ig h s c h o o l , i n l a t e r y e a r s , made t h e p o o r e s t sh o w in g , w ith l i m i t e d o f f e r i n g s o f a g e n e r a l c u r r i c u l u m . V o c a t io n a l a n d c o m m e rc ia l s u b j e o t s w ere n o t i n c l u d e d u n t i l �106- a f te r 1946. T h i s p r e v e n t e d th e s c h o o l f r o m b ec o m in g a c c r e d i t e d u n t i l t h e s c h o o l y e a r 1 9 4 8 -4 9 . 8 . L i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s f o r N e g ro e s w e re p r a c t i c a l l y n o n - e x is te n t u n t i l th e l a s t d e c a d e . The s c h o o l y e a r 1 9 4 6 - 4 9 saw th e f i r s t e f f o r t s a t e q u i p p in g t h e h ig h s c h o o l w ith a lib ra ry . E le m e n ta ry s c h o o l l i b r a r y f a c i l i t i e s w e re s t i l l lim ite d . 9. The c o s t o f i n s t r u c t i o n h a s i n c r e a s e d s t e a d i l y i n s p i t e o f e a r l i e r d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e tw e e n w h ite a n d N egro p e r c a p ita c o s ts . I n 1 9 2 6 , £ 2 2 .0 3 w as e x p e n d e d f o r w h ite p u p i l s , a n d * 1 7 .9 2 f o r N e g ro p u p i l s , b u t th e c o s t o f N egro e d u c a t i o n w as g e n e r a l l y a b o v e t h e s t a t e a v e r a g e . In 1946- 4 9 , t h e N egro e le m e n t a r y n o h o o l c h i l d w as a l l o t t e d £ 1 1 3 .0 5 an d t h e w h ite c h i l d , £ 9 7 .4 0 . The f a c t t h a t N e g ro e s r e c e iv e d m ore p e r c a p i t a a t t h i s ti m e w as d u e t o t h e em p h a s i s o n im p ro v e m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r N egro p u p ils . 10, A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty p a r e n t - t e a c h e r l e a g u e s e x p r e s s e d th e m s e lv e s i n f a v o r o f im p ro v e d e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n th r o u g h a u d i e n c e s w i t h s c h o o l b o a rd o f f i c i a l s a n d th r o u g h th e p u r c h a s e o f n e c e s s a r y s c h o o l e q u ip m e n t. The p a r e n t - t e a c h e r l e a g u e s s u p p l i e d t h e few l i b r a r y b o o k s u s e d by thB s c h o o l s , t h e y p r o v id e d s c h o o l s u p p l i e s , an d h e l p e d w i t h th e s c h o o l lu n c h p ro g ram . L a n g s to n S c h o o l p a t r o n s h e l d a u d i e n c e s �-1 0 9 - w i t h t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and s e n t p e t i t i o n s f o r needed r e s t ro o m s , f e n c i n g a n d la n d s c a p i n g i n tb s d e c a d e b e g in n in g 1 9 3 0 . T hen i n 1 9 4 6 , Kem per A nnex w as c o n s t r u c t e d , i t w as th e r e s u l t o f s e v e r a l v i s i t s to th e o f f i c e o f th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t b y t h e K em per S c h o o l p a t r o n s . 1 1 . The N e g ro p u p i l h a s b e n e f i t e d fro m b o n d i s s u e s a n d e d u c a t i o n a l s u r v e y s , d e s p i t e t h e s lo w n e s s of t h e s c h o o l b o a rd i n a c c o m p li s h in g c h a n g e s i n K e g ro s c h o o l s , w h o re b u i l d i n g s a n d f a c i l i t i e s w ere c o n c e r n e d . I n 1922, " C ld K em per S c h o o l’* w as b u i l t a t a c o s t o f ^ 1 7 ,0 0 0 .0 0 , a l t h o u g h tw o o t h e r s c h o o ls p e t i t i o n e d f o r w e re n o t c o n s tru c te d u n t i l l a t e r . Im p ro v e m e n ts w e re m ade I n some o f t h e N eg ro e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls w i t h e a c h bond i s s u e . I n 1 9 4 2 -4 9 , K o ffm a n -B o s to n H ig h S c h o o l a u d i t o r i u m w as r e n o v a t e d a n d tw o c l a s s r o o m s w e re c o n v e r t e d i n t o a lib ra ry . I n 19 4 9 , t h e y e a r o f th e l a s t bond i s s u e , fu n d s w e re d e s i g n a t e d f o r a new H o ffm a n -B o s to n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , an d f o r a n e x t e n s i o n o f th e p r e s e n t b u i l d i n g f o r h ig h sch o o l c o u rse s. 1 2 . I n d i c a t i v e o f t h e p r o g r e o s i v e n e s a o f t h e c o u n ty w as t h e a c t i o n o f c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f b o th w h ite and N e g ro r a c e s s e e k i n g s c h o o l im p ro v e m e n ts . The tw o i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s w ere t h e B u tle r-H o m e s A s s o c i a t i o n a n d th e A r l i n g t o n C i t i z e n s A s s o c i a t i o n f o r S c h o o l I n p r o v e m e n t. The f o r m e r , c o n s i s t i n g o f K eg ro c i t i z e n s , s e n t p e t i t i o n s �- 110- f r o ia 1932 th r o u g h 1 9 3 5 , r e q u e s t i n g a j u n i o r a n d a s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l f o r H o g ro p u p i l s . The l a t t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n , co m p o sed o f y /h i te c i t i z e n s , p e t i t i o n e d f o r a new bond i s s u e i n 1 9 4 6 , w h ic h w as t o p r o v id e f o r t h e n e e d s o f c o lo re d p u p il s a s w e ll a s f o r w h ite p u p il s . 13, The o n e o u t s t a n d i n g p r e s s u r e g ro u p i n t h e c o u n t y w as t h e n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A dvancem ent of C o lo re d P e o p le , T h is o r g a n i z a t i o n b e g a n i n 1 9 4 1 , a n e x t e n s i v e f i g h t f o r im p ro v e d e d u c a t i o n . C o m m ittees fro m t h e g r o u p m e t f r e q u e n t l y w ith t h e s c h o o l b o a r d t o d i s c u s s th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a j u n i o r a n d a s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l , a n d t h e p ay m en t o f t u i t i o n o f A r l i n g t o n p u p i l s a t t e n d i n g s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s i n t h e D i s t r i c t o f C o lu m b ia . I n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e c o u r t c a s e w h ich b e g a n on S ep tem b e r 6 , 1949, th e o r g a n iz a tio n s e c u re d th e s e r v ic e s o f D r. M a r t i n D. J e n k i n s , t o c o n d u c t a s u r v e y o f W a sh in g to n L ee a n d IIo ffm a n -B o s to n s c h o o l s . F i n a l l y , t h e y b ro u g h t c h a rg e s o f d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t th e s c h o o l b o a rd . T hey u n d e r to o k t h e f i n a n c i a l b u rd e n o f t h i s a c t i o n and s u c c e e d o d i n w in n in g f o r t h e N e g ro p u p i l s o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , th e l e g a l r i g h t t o e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . �- 111- C o n c lu s io n s The d e v e lo p m e n t o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty w as r e l a t i v e l y s lo w a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y , p a r a l l e l i n g t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n s o c i a l t h i n k i n g o f th e p e o p l e o f V i r g i n i a , b u t t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e s m a l l e s t c o u n ty o f V i r g i n i a w as a lw a y s c o n s i d e r e d t h e m ost advanced w ith in th e S ta t e , I n l a t e r y e a rs th e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f th e e d u c a tio n a l p r o g ra m f o r N eg ro p u p i l s s to o d o u t i n s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t t o c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e e a r l y p e r i o d 1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 9 , T h is c o n t r a s t s e r v e s t o p o i n t o u t t h e f a c t t h a t A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , th r o u g h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f s t a t e an d c o u n ty b o a rd s and o f f i c i a l s , p a r e n t - te a c h e r le a g u e s , c i v i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e NAACP, h a s b ro u g h t a b o u t t h e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d im p ro v e m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n f o r N eg ro y o u th . Y S iile t h i s s tu d y h a s r e v e a l e d many i n a d e q u a c i e s i n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n f o r N e g ro e s i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , t h e y w e re p a r t i a l l y b a l a n c e d b y t h e good f e a t u r e s o f t h e s y s te m . The g ro w in g w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e s c h o o l b o a r d t o e r a d i c a t e t h e e x i s t e n t i n e q u a l i t i e s w o u ld i n d i c a t e t h a t fe w e r d is c r e p a n c ie s w i l l e x i s t i n th e f u tu r e o f pub lic e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e N e g ro p u p i l i n A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . �- 112- BIBLIOGRAPHT P r im a r y S o u r c e s A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o a rd D ocum ents A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l R e p o r t s , 1 9 1 0 -1 9 4 9 . A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o a r d , a n n u a l B u l l e t i n s , 1 9 4 0 -4 1 ; 1 9 4 1 4 2 ; 1 9 4 3 -4 4 ; a n d 1 9 4 4 -4 6 . D aw son, Howard A ., "A R e p o r t o f a C o m p a riso n o f t h e W a sh in g to n L ee a n d H o ffm a n -B o s to n H ig h S c h o o l s , ” A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a , A u g u st 1 9 4 9 . P p . 8 5 . ( P lu s A p p e n d ix , P p . 4 0 .) J e n k i n s , M a r ti n D ., ”A R e p o r t on t h e 'W ash in g to n -L ee a n d H o f f m a n -B o sto n H ig h S c h o o ls o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , V i r g i n i a , " W a s h in g to n , D. C .: Howard U n i v e r s i t y , J a n u a r y 1 9 4 8 . P p . 4 0 . M in u te s o f S c h o o l B o a rd T r u s t e e s , A r l i n g t o n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 1 8 7 0 -1 9 0 5 . M in u te s o f S c h o o l B o ard T r u s t e e s , J e f f e r s o n S c h o o l D i s t r i c t , 1 9 0 0 -1 9 1 6 . M in u te s o f t h e S c h o o l B o a rd o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty V i r g i n i a , 1 9 1 7 -1 9 4 9 . V i r g i n i a S t a t e E d u c a t i o n a l D ocum ents S t a t e B o a rd o f E d u c a ti o n , A C o m p re h e n siv e P ro g ram o f E d u c a tio n f o r V i r g i n i a * ^ P u b l i c S c h o o l s . R ichm ond: D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e a n d P r i n t i n g , May 1 9 4 7 . P p . 2 3 . S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a ti o n , P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n i n V i r g i n i a . R ich m o nd: A p r i l 1 9 4 9 . F p . 1 1 1 . V i r g i n i a D e p a rtm e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , C o n c e rn in g C e r t i f i c a t i o n o f T e a c h e r s . R ichm ond: S t a t e B o a rd o f i i d u o u tlo n , l 9 l 4 . Pp. 15. V i r g i n i a D e p a rtm e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n . A nnual R e p o rts o f t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , 1 8 7 6 -1 9 4 9 . R ichm o n d : D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e an d P r i n t i n g . V i r g i n i a D e p a rtm e n t o f P u b l i c I n s t r u c t i o n , T h ir d A n n u a l R e p o r t o f t h e P u b l i c H ig h S c h o o ls o f V i r g i n i a . 1 9 l T - l 5 ^ Icichm ond: S u p e rin te n d e n t o f P u b lic P r in tin g 7 1615, I p . 4 9 . �-1 1 3 V i r g i n l a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n t o S u rv e y th e E d u c a t i o n a l S y ste m o f V i r g i n i a , P u b l i c E d u c a ti o n i n V i r g i n i a . R ic h mond: S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u b l i c P r i n t i n g , 1 9 2 8 , P p . v i i / 6 3 4 . V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n , V i r g i n i a P u b l i c S c h o o ls . Y o n k e rs -o n -K u d s o n : W orld Book Company, 1 9 2 0 , P p . 4 0 o . V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n , The V i r g i n i a P u b l i c S c h o o l S y s te m . R ich m o n d : D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e an d P r i n t i n g , 1944. P p. 198. V i r g i n i a E d u c a ti o n C o m m issio n , V i r g i n i a P u b l i c S c h o o l S y s te m . R ich m o n d : D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e a n d P r i n t i n g , 1 9 4 0 . Pp. 28. V i r g i n i a S t a t e B o a rd o f E d u c a ti o n , A n n u a l Feep o r t o f t h e P u b l i c H ig h S c h o o ls o f V i r g i n i a f o r th e S c h o o l Y e a r 1 9 1 7 1 9 1 8 . V o l. 1 , N o. 1 , R ic h m o n d ? S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f P u rc h a s e and P r i n t i n g , 1918, P p . 7 9 . V i r g i n i a S t a t e B o a rd o f E d u c a ti o n , A n n u a l R e p o r t o f th e P u b l i c H ig h S c h o o ls o f V i r g i n i a f o r th e S c h o o l Y e a r 1 9 2 7 2 8 . V o l X I, N o. 2 , O c to b e r 1 9 2 8 , S u p p le m e n t Iio • 1 , R ic h mond: D i v i s i o n o f P u r c h a s e a n d P r i n t i n g , 1 9 2 8 , P p . 5 6 . V i r g i n i a S t a t e B o ard o f E d u c a t i o n , P u b l i c S c h o o ls i n V i r g i n i a . Volume X X II, H o. 4 , R ichm ond: D i v i s i o n o f P u r ch a se and P r i n t i n g , 1 9 4 0 . P p , 51. V i r g i n i a . L aw s. St a t u t e s , and C o n s t i t u t i o n s A c ts o f t h e A ssem b ly . 1 8 7 0 -1 9 4 9 . B ren a m an , J a c o b : A H i s t o r y o f V i r g i n i a C o n v e n t! o n s . R ich m ond: J . L . H ilT P r i n t i n g Company, 1 9 0 2 . P p . 1 2 2 / P p . 7 3 . G u i l d , J u n e P u r c e l l , B la c k Laws o f V i r g i n i a . R ichm ond: W h itte t and S h e p p e rso n , 1936. P p . 2 3 4 . J o n e s , Anna L . , An A b rid g e m e n t o f t h e V i r g i n i a Laws C o n c e r n in g E d u c a ti o n . L y n c h b u rg : J ? P . B e lT Com pany, I n c . , 1 9 1 5 . P p . 270, P u l l i a m , D a v id L lo y d , The C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n s o f V i r fro m th e F o u n d a tio n o f t h e Comm onwealth t o th e P r e s e n t R ichm ond: J o h n T . W e st, P u b l i s h e r , 1 9 0 1 , P p . 186". n fiim iea. S t a t e B o a rd o f E d u c a t i o n , V i r g i n i a S c h o o l Law s. 1 8 7 5 , 1 8 8 3 , 1 8 9 2 , 1 9 0 1 , 1 9 0 3 , 1 9 0 7 , 1 9 0 8 , 1 9 3 6 , 1 9 4 0 , and 1 9 4 4 . �-1 1 4 S e c o n d a ry S o u r c e s H is to r ie s - V irg in ia A le x a n d e r , F r e d e r i c k I i I t o n , E d u c a ti o n f a r t h e H eed s o f t h e N eg ro i n V i r g i n i a . D o c to rs D i s s e r t a t i o n 7 W aishlngiori, D. C .: S o u th e r n E d u c a t i o n a l F o u n d a ti o n , I n c . , 1 9 4 3 . P p . r v i / 2 8 1 . B ro w n, V i I l i a n H e n ry , The E d u c a ti o n a n d E conom ic D ev elo p m en t o f t h e N eg ro i n V i r g i n i a . P h e lp s - S to k e is F u n d , C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : S u r b e r - n r u n d e T ”Company, 1 9 2 3 . P p . 1 5 0 . B r u c e , P h i l i p A le x a n d e r , H i s t o r y o f V i r g i n i a S in c e 1 3 6 1 . V olum e I I I , A m e ric a n h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t y , P p . v /4 2 1 . C o o k e , J o h n B s t e n , V i r g i n i a . A H i s t o r y o f th e P e o p le . B o s to n : H o u g h to n , l . i f f l i n a n d Com psny7 I s o i . Ip. x x i/b lC T . D ab n ey , C h a r l e s W i lli a m , U n i v e r s a l E d u c a ti o n i n t h e S o u th . C h a p e l H i l l : U n i v e r s i t y of N o r th C a r o l i n a P r e s s , V olume I . "F rom t h e B e g in n in g t o 1 9 0 0 .” 1 9 3 6 , P p . x v i / 5 3 7 . e k e n ro d e , H a m ilto n J a m e s , The P o l i t i c a l H i s t o r y o f V i r g i n i a D u r in g t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n . B a l tim o ie J o h n s H o p k in s S t u d i e s , S e r i e s X X II, No b . 6 , 7 , 8 , 1 9 0 4 , P p . 1 2 8 . E v e r e tt, Jo sep h V ir g in ia * s P u b lic s c h o o ls . C h a r l o tte s v i l l e : U n iv e rs ity of V ir g in ia . 1 9 1 5 . ( P a g e s u n n u m b e re d .) G ee, A lis o n , and C o rs o n , J o h n J . f A S t a t i s t i c a l S tu d y o f V i r g i n i a . C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a , 'lire I n s t i t u t e f o r R e s e a rc h i n t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s , 1 9 2 7 , P p . 2 0 1 . U o a tw o le , C o r n e l i u s J a c o b , A h i s t o r y o f E d u c a tio n i n V i r g i n i a . New Y o rk : The N a c m ill a n Company, 1 9 1 6 . P p . x v i i i / ^ 7 7 . L a g ru d e r, F , a . R e c e n t a d m in is tr a tio n i n V ir g i n i a . Jo h n s H o p k in s S t u d i o s i'ri h i s t o r i c a l a n d P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , B a ltim o r e The J o h n s H o p k in s P r e s s , 1 9 1 2 . Volume 3 0 , P p . v i i / 1 7 4 . o r t o n , R i c h a r d , The :.o g ro i n V i r g i n i a P o l i t i c s . 1 8 6 5 -1 9 0 2 . C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f Virginia P r e s s , 1 9 1 9 . ip. 1 9 9 . P h i l l i p s , C la y to n B e v e r l y , i d u c a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a U n d er S u p e r i n t e n d e n t R ic h a r d R a t c l l f f e F a rr." T S s S P lB 's 'd .' s e c o n d u r y E du c a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a , k o , l 3 , V i r g i n i a C o j^ .-itto e f o r R e s e a r c h i n S e c o n d a ry E d u c a ti o n , M a s te r s T h e s i s , C h a r l o t t e s v i l l e : U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a , K ay 1 9 3 2 . P p . 1 6 5 . �-1 1 5 H is to rie s - i r l i n g t o n C o u n ty A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o a rd , " H i s t o r y o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty .” (M im eographed R e p o r t . ) P p . 6 . C h i t t e n d e n , C e c i l , A r l i n g t o n . A New .F r o n t i e r . New Y o rk : The H obson Book P r e s s , 1 9 4 6 . P p . l i f t . L e e , D o ro th y B i l l s . A H i s t o r y o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . V i r g i n i a . R ichm ond: 1 9 4 6 . PpT x H T I E S .--------------- ------------------ ----------- ------N a tio n a l R e t a i l I n s t i t u t e , The Book o f A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty . V i r g i n i a . W a s h in g to n , D. C ., 1 9 2 6 . P p . 5 2 . P a u l e t t e , Edw ard VV., A r l i n g t o n * s O n e-H u n d red Y e a rs o f P ro g r e s s , 1 6 4 6 - 1 9 4 6 . ( P a g e s unnum bered.") N ew sp a p ers R ichm ond T i m e s - D is p a te n . 1 8 6 9 -1 9 1 7 The A le x a n d ri a G a z e t t e . 1 8 6 9 -1 9 0 0 The A r l i n g t o n S u n . 1 9 4 6 -4 9 The B v e n in g S t a r . 1 9 2 7 -4 9 The W a sh in g to n D a il y N ew s. 1 9 2 7 -4 9 The W a sh in g to n P o s t . 1927-;49 E d u c a t i o n a l and G e n e r a l H i s t o r i e s B ond, H o ra c e M ann, The E d u c a ti o n o f t h e N eg ro i n t h e A m eri c a n S o c i a l O rd e r. New Y o rk : P r 'e n t i c e - i i a 'I l Company, I n c . , i& $ 4 , P p . 5037 B ra w le y , B e n ja m in , A S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f t h e A m e ric a n N e g ro . New York: The MaomiXlan Company,' 19217 P p7 420'. B u m s te a d , H o r a c e , S e c o n d a ry an d M g h o r E d u c a ti o n i n t h e s o u th f o r 'Y h ite s and N e g ro e s . NJLCP, N o. 2 . , 1 9 1 0 . ( P a g e s u n n u m b e re d ). C u b b e r l e y , B llw o o d P a t t e r s o n , P u b lic E d u c a ti o n i n t h e U n ite d S ta te s . C a m b rid g e , P a s s . : Tha R i v e r s i d e W e seT T L T O f. ' P p . x x x v /5 0 6 . �-116D o u g la s , H a r l R . and D r e i d e r , C a l v i n , A m e ric a n P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n . New Y o rk : The R o n a ld P r e s s Company, 1 9 4 8 . P p . x i i / 5 9 3 . F r a n k l i n , J o h n H o p e, From S l a v e r y t o F re e d o m . A l f r e d A . K n o p f, 1 9 4 7 . P p . x v /6 2 2 . New Y ork: G a llo w a y , B is h o p C h a r l e s B . , The S o u th a n d t h e N e g ro . From Occ a s i o n a l P a p e r s . J o h n F . S l a t e r Fund f o r t h e E d u c a ti o n o f F re e d m e n . P u b lis h e d b y t h e T r u s t e e s , 1 9 0 4 . P p . 1 6 . J o h n s o n , C h a r l e s S . , The N eg ro i n A m e ric a n C i v i l i z a t i o n . New Y o rk : H en ry H o lt an d Com pany, 1 9 3 0 . P p . x iv /5 1 '7 . K n ig h t, E d g a r W a lla c e , E d u c a ti o n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . B o s to n : G in n a n d Company, 1 9 3 4 . P p . x i / 6 1 3 . K n ig h t, E d g a r W a lla c e , P u b lic E d u c a ti o n i n t h e S o u th . B o s to n : G in n a n d Company, 1 9 2 2 . P p . 4 7 2 . R a n d a l l , J . G . The C i v i l Tar a n d R e c o n s t r u c t i o n . New Y ork : D. C . H e a th a n d Company, 1 5 3 7 • P p . x v i i / 9 2 4 . W a s h in g to n , B o o k e r T a l i a f e r r o . The F u tu r e o f t h e A m erican N e g ro . B o s to n : S m a l l, M aynard a n d Company, 1 8 9 9 . P p . x /2 4 4 . P u b l i c D ocum ents a n d O f f i c i a l S u r v e y s B lo s e , D av id T . , S t a t i s t i c s o f E d u c a ti o n o f N e g ro e s . 1 9 4 1 4 2 . 1 9 4 3 -4 4 . S t a t i s t i c a l C i r c u l a r , F e d e r a l S e c u r i t y \ t g e n c y . O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n , W a sh in g to n D. C .: (P a g e s unnum bered) B o n n e r, H. R . , S t a t i s t i c s o f P u b l i c H ig h S c h o o ls , 1 9 1 7 - 1 8 , U . S . B u re a u o f E d u c a tio n B u l l e t i n , Wo. 1 9 , W a sh in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 2 0 . P p . 1 9 2 . C a l i v e r , A m brose, E d u c a ti o n o f N eg ro T e a c h e r s . N a t i o n a l S u r v e y o f t h e E d u c a ti o n o f T e a c h e r s , B u l l e t i n N o. 1 0 , V o l. IV , W a sh in g to n , D. C .: 1 9 3 3 . P p . 1 2 3 . C a l i v e r , .A mbrose, F u n d a m e n ta ls I n t h e E d u c a ti o n o f N e g r o e s . U. S . D e p a rtm e n t o f I n t e r i o r , O fF ic e of E d u c a ti o n , W a s h in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 5 . P p . 9 0 . C a l i v e r , A m brose, S e c o n d a ry E d u c a ti o n f o r N e g r o e s . U . S . B u re a u o f E d u c a ti o n B u l l e t i n , " K o. 1 7 , P o n o g ra p h 9 , W ashing t o n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 2 . P p . 1 2 1 . �-1 1 7 H o o d , 'W illia m R . , R ev iew o f E d u c a t i o n a l L e g i s l a t i o n 1 9 1 7 - H 1 8 . B u r e a u o f E d u c a t i o n , B u l l e t i n N o. 1 3 , W a s h in g to n , D . c . : G o v ern m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 1 9 . P p . 3 0 / P p . 2 6 . ( A ls o , R e p o r t s f o r 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 2 1 - 2 2 , 1 9 2 3 - 2 4 , 1 9 2 8 - 3 0 , 1 9 3 2 - 3 4 , an d 1 9 4 2 - 4 4 . ) J o n e s , Thomas J e s s e , R e c e n t P r o g r o s s i n N eg ro E d u c a ti o n . B u re a u o f E d u c a t i o n , B u l l e t i n N o. 2 7 , W a sh in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r in ti n g O ffic e , 1919, P p. 16. J o n e s , Thomas J e s s e , N eg ro E d u c a ti o n : A S tu d y o f P r i v a t e and H ig h e r S c h o o ls f o r C o lo re d P e o p le i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . B u re a u o f e d u c a t i o n . B u l l e t i n , N o. 3 9 , Volume '1 , W a sh in g to n , I). C. : G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 0 . P p . 2 0 . K e e s e c k e r , H ard W., R ev iew o f E d u c a t i o n a l L s g i s l a t i o n 1 9 2 6 - 2 8 . B i e n n i a l S u rv e y o f E d u c a ti o n . U, S . B u re a u o f .e d u c a tio n , a s h i n g t o n , D. CTT g o v e rn m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 0 , P p . 2 0 . TJ. S . D e p a rtm e n t o f Com m erce, B u re a u o f t h e C e n s u s , C o u n ty D a ta B ook, /a s h i n g t o n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t F r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 4 7 . P p .x iii/4 3 1 . U . 3 . D e p a rtm e n t o f C om m erce, B u re a u o f th e C e n s u s , H i s t o r i c a l S t a t i s t i c s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 1 7 8 9 -1 9 4 5 . 'W ash in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 4 9 . P p . v i i i / 3 5 1 . U . S . D e p a rtm e n t o f Comm erce, an d L a b o r , B u re a u o f t h e C e n s u s , N e g ro e s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . B u l l e t i n N o. 8 , W a s h in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 0 4 . P p . 3 5 3 . U . S . D e p a rtm e n t o f Comm erce, B u re a u o f t h e C e n s u s , N e g ro e s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 1 9 2 0 -5 2 . " /a s h i n g to n , D . C .: G o v ern m en t P r in ti n g O f f ic e , 19 3 5 . P p . x v I/8 4 5 . U . S . D e p a rtm e n t o f C om m erce, B u re a u o f t h e C e n s u s , P o p u l a t i o n . V o l. 1 , S i x t e e n t h C e n s u s , /a s h i n g t o n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r m t in g O f f ic e , 1 9 4 2 . P p . v i/1 2 3 6 . U . S . O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n , S t a t i s t i c s o f E d u c a ti o n o f N e g r o e s . W a sh in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 4 1 -4 2 7 1 9 4 3 4 4 , a n d 1 9 4 5 -4 6 . U . S . O f f ic e o f E d u c a ti o n , B i e n n i a l S u rv e y o f E d u c a ti o n i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , a s h i n g t o n , D. 0 . : G o v e rn m e n t" * P rin tin g P f f T c e , 1 9 ^ 8 - 3 0 , 1 9 i5 6 -3 2 , 1 9 3 2 -3 4 , an d 1 9 4 2 -4 4 . U . 8 . O f f i c e o f E d u c a ti o n , S t a t i s t i c a l S u rv e y o f e d u c a t i o n . W a sh in g to n , D. C .: G o v ern m en t P r i . t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 1 7 -1 8 , 1 9 2 3 , 1 9 2 3 - 2 4 , 1 9 2 5 -2 6 . W i lk e r s o n , Doxey A ., S p e c i a l P ro b le m s o f N eg ro E d u c a ti o n . The A d v is o r y C o m m ittee on E d u c a ti o n S ta P f jT T o . 1 2 , a s h i n g t o n , D. C. G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 3 9 . P p . 1 7 1 . �-1 1 8 - Periodicals " C u r r e n t T re n d s a n d E v e n ts o f N a t i o n a l Im p o r ta n c e i n N egro E d u c a t i o n , S e c t i o n A: T h re e V i r g i n i a P u b l i c S c h o o l C a s e s ," J o u r n a l o f N eg ro E d u c a t i o n , V o l» X V III, N o, 2 , S p r in g 1 9 4 9 , p p . 1 7 3 -1 7 9 . D a n i e l , W a lte r G ., " A v a i l a b i l i t y o f E d u c a ti o n f o r N e g r o e s ," J o u r n a l o f N eg ro E d u c a t i o n . V ol* XVI, N o. 3 , Summer 1 9 4 7 , p p . 4 5 0 -4 5 8 . K n o x , E l l i s 0 . , "A H i s t o r i c a l S k e tc h o f S e c o n d a ry E d u c a ti o n f o r N e g r o e s ," J o u r n a l o f N eg ro E d u c a t i o n . V o l. IX , N o. 3 , J u l y 1 9 4 0 , p p . 4 4 0 -4 5 3 . K n o x , E l l i s 0 . , "The O r i g i n a n d D ev elo p m en t o f t h e N eg ro S e p a r a t e S c h o o l ," J o u r n a l o f N eg ro E d u c a t i o n . V o l.X IV , N o. 3 , Summer. 1 9 4 7 , p p . 2 6 9 -2 7 9 . T hom pson, C h a r l e s H . , " P r o g r e s s i n E l i m i n a t i o n o f D i s c r l u n a t i o n i n W h ite an d N eg ro T e a c h e r s S a l a r i e s , " J o u r n a l o f N egro E d u c a t i o n , V o l* IX , J a n u a r y 1 9 4 0 , p p . 5 3 8 -5 3 9 . i:iscellaneou3 "The S o c i a l S u r v e y ," A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty , R e p o r t , D r . 3 . H. J a r m a n , C h a irm a n , D ecem b er, 1 9 4 6 . ( P p . 181 / A p p en d ix ) R e d o a y , E dw ard E . , C o u n ty T r a i n i n g S c h o o ls a n d P u b lic S e c o n d a ry E d u c a ti o n f o r N e g ro e s i n t h e S o u th . J o h n F . S l a t e r F u n d , W a s h in g to n , D. C .: 1 9 3 5 , P p .1 6 8 . W a lk e r , G i l b e r t C . , " L e t t e r o f G o v e rn o r W a lk er on t h e P u b lic S o h o o l S y s te m ." R ichm on d: 1 8 7 0 . (S e p te m b e r 2 8 , 1 8 7 0 .) �APPENDICES �TABLE I S a l a r y S c h e d u le - A p r i l 1924 C la s s ific a tio n o f T e a c h e rs : in ittu n E duca tio n a l tr a i n in g C e rtific a te s In itia l S a la ry A nnual I n c rea se Maximum S a la ry P h y s i c a l D ir e c to r B .8 . o r A .B . d e c re e fro n s ta n d a rd c o lle g e C o lle g ia te P ro fs b s I onal £2000*00 £100*00 $ £ 6 0 0 .0 0 J u n i o r an d S e n i o r H ig h S c h o o l D ire c to r A.B* o r A .tt. d e g r e e fro m s t a n d a rd c o lle g e C o lle g ia te P ro fe s sio n a l 2000*00 2 6 0 0 .0 0 N orm al G r a d u a te o r E q u i v a le n t N orm al P ro fe ssio n a l 1 1 0 0 .0 0 H a tin g A -1 0 0 B - 75 C - 25 D -N one H a tin g B “ 75 ■6TI- CO O ne-room T e a c h e rs a n d 2 t o 4 room T e a c h e rs H a •H 5 t o 10 ■ T e a c h e rs -! ■ H h > i U e rf ■ P c 11 t o 15 § T e a c h e rs B pH M N orm al G ra d u a te N orm al p l u s one y e a r o r P r o f e s s i o n a l and S p e c ia l E q u iv a le n t N orm al G r a d u a te p l u s tw o y e a r s o r E q u i v a le n t N orm al P r o f e s s i o n a l and S p e c ia l 1 3 5 0 .0 0 1400*00 D -.None S -N one H a tin g A -7 5 B -5 0 C -2 5 D -Non© E -Non© h a tin g A -7 5 B -5 0 C -2 5 D - Non© S - None 1 5 5 0 .0 0 1 0 8 0 .0 0 1 6 5 0 .0 0 �TABLE I ( c o n t in u e d ) S a l a r y S c h e d u le - A p r i l 1924 C la s s ific a tio n 5f T e a c h e rs minimum E duca tio n a l tr a in in g C e rtific a te s In itia l S a la ry A n n u al In crea se Maximum S a la ry S e n io r H ig h School A .3 . d e g r e e fro m s ta n d a rd c o lle g e C o lle g ia te P ro fe s s io n a l C 1 400 .0 0 1 6 5 0 .0 0 F u n io r H igh S chool A .B . d e g r e e fro m s ta n d a r d c o lle g e C o lle g ia te 1 3 5 0 .0 0 R a tin g A - 75 B - 50 C - 25 D - None A - 75 B - 50 C - 25 D - None E le m e n ta ry N orm al G ra d u a te o r E q u i v a le n t N orm al P ro f e s s i o n a l an d C o lle g ia te 1 9 5 0 .0 0 P rin c ip a l 2 to 5 T e a c h e rs N orm al G ra d u a te o r H ig h S c h o o l p l u s tw o y e a r s o r E q u i v a le n t E le m e n ta r y P ro fe s sio n a l E le m e n ta ry T e a c h e rs H ig h S c h o o l p l u s o ne y e a r E le m e n ta r y C e rtific a te le o o .o b A B C D - 75 50 25 None 1 4 6 0 .0 0 1 0 0 0 .0 0 A B C D - 75 50 25 None 1 4 5 0 .0 0 7 5 0 .0 0 A B C D - 75 50 25 None 1 2 0 0 .0 0 JOLOiffit) Comp l i e d fro m M in u te s o f S chool B o a rd , A r l i n g t o n County* V irg in ia �121- TABLE I I UNITED STATES POPULATION STATISTICS TSAR TOTAL ’SHITE • NEGRO 1870 3 6 ,5 5 8 ,3 7 1 3 3 ,5 6 9 ,3 7 7 4 ,8 8 0 ,0 0 9 i8 6 0 5 0 ,1 5 5 ,7 8 3 4 3 ,4 0 2 ,9 7 0 6 ,5 8 0 ,7 9 3 1890 6 2 ,9 4 7 ,7 1 4 5 5 ,1 0 1 ,2 5 8 7 ,4 8 8 ,6 7 6 1900 7 5 ,9 9 4 ,5 7 5 6 6 ,8 0 9 ,1 9 6 8 ,8 3 3 ,9 9 4 1910 9 1 ,9 7 2 ,2 6 6 8 1 ,7 3 1 ,9 5 7 9 ,8 2 7 ,7 6 3 1920 1 0 5 ,7 1 0 ,6 2 0 9 4 ,8 2 0 ,9 1 5 1 0 ,4 6 3 ,1 3 1 1930 1 2 2 ,7 7 5 ,0 4 6 1 1 0 ,2 8 6 ,7 4 0 1 1 ,8 9 1 ,1 4 3 1940 1 3 1 ,6 6 9 ,2 7 5 1 1 8 ,2 1 4 ,8 7 0 1 2 ,8 6 5 ,5 1 8 C o m p iled fro m U . S . D e p a rtm e n t o f Corrmierce, H i s t o r i c a l S t a t i s t i c s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 1 7 6 9 -1 9 4 5 . Y /ash in .^ to n , . C .: G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1 9 4 9 . �- 122- TABLE I I I VIRGINIA POPULATION YEAR TOTAL 'vTHITE NEGRO PER CENT NEGRO 1870 1 ,2 2 5 ,1 6 3 7 1 2 ,0 6 9 5 1 2 ,0 4 1 4 1 .9 1680 1 ,5 1 2 ,5 6 5 8 8 0 ,8 5 8 6 3 1 ,6 1 6 4 1 .8 1890 1 ,6 5 5 ,9 6 0 1 ,0 2 0 ,1 2 2 6 3 5 ,4 3 8 3 8 .4 1900 1 ,6 5 4 ,1 6 4 1 ,1 9 2 ,8 5 5 6 6 0 ,7 2 2 3 5 .7 1910 2 ,0 6 1 ,6 1 2 1 ,3 8 9 ,8 0 2 6 7 1 ,0 9 6 3 6 .6 1920 2 ,3 0 9 ,1 6 7 * 6 9 0 ,0 1 7 2 9 .9 L930 2 ,4 2 1 ,8 5 1 * 6 5 0 ,1 6 5 • L940 2 ,6 7 7 ,7 7 3 2 ,0 1 5 ,5 8 3 6 6 1 ,4 4 9 ^ F ig u re s n o t a v a ila b l e C o m p iled fro m TJ. 3 , D e p a rtm e n t o f Commerce H i s t o r i c a l S t a t i s t i c s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 7 8 9 -1 9 4 5 . a s h i n g t o n , D. Cs G o v ern m en t } r l n t , ng O f f i c e , 1949 25 �-1 2 3 - TABLB IV ARLINGTON COUNTY POPULATION YEAH TOTAL 'VBlTH NEGRO 1870 3185 1175 2010 6 2 .7 le so 3887 1693 2194 5 6 .2 1690 4258 2135 2123 4 9 .8 1900 6430 3963 2467 3 8 .2 1910 1 0 ,2 3 1 7586 2645 2 5 .8 1920 1 0 ,0 4 0 1 3 ,5 3 3 2507 1 5 .0 1930 2 6 ,6 1 5 2 3 ,2 7 8 3337 1 2 .5 1940 5 7 ,0 4 0 5 1 ,9 9 8 6042 1 0 .6 C o m p ile d fro m R e p o r t s o f t h e A r l i n g t o n C o u n ty S c h o o l B o ard PER CENT NEGRO �-1 2 4 - IPTIKcVIKA'S The f o l l o w i n g h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d a n d i n f l u e n t i a l c i t i z e n s w e re i n t e r v i e w e d : I r s . E s t h e r C o o p er - C iv i c w o r k e r , a c t i v e i n v a r io u s le a g u e s , ch u rc h o rg a n i z a t i o n s , an d P r e s i d e n t o f t h e A r l i n g t o n B ra n c h o f th e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e ad v a n c e m e n t o f C o lo r e d P e o p le . K r . S olom on Thom pson - R e t i r e d r e a l t o r , w o rk er. I-.r. A . T . S h i r l e y - c iv ic an d c h u rc h F o rm er P r i n c i p a l o f J e f f e r s o n S c h o o l, a n d r e t i r e d e d u c a to r o f F a i r f a x C o u n ty ; a l s o , c i v i c a n d ch u rch w o rk e r. I i s s L i l l i a n Smackum - P r i n c i p a l o f K em per S c h o o l. L r . S te p h e n I • S y d n o r - P r i n c i p a l o f H o ffm a n -B o s to n S c h o o l. t r s . K a t h e r i n e W oodson - T e a c h e r a n d n a t i v e a r l i n g to n ia n . M r s . C la u d ia P i t t s - S u p e r v i s o r o f N eg ro E le m e n ta r y S c h o o ls o f - i r l i n g t o n C o u n ty s i n c e 1 9 3 6 1921 L i e s E l i z a b e t h H ic k s - N a ti v e o f t h e C o u n ty , fo rm e r t e a c h e r o f Kem per E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l and p r e s e n t C le r k o f H o ffm a n -B o s to n S c h o o l. �/ l / / / i ^ ) 'j / , / / 2 y y i^ L y - ^C ^ J? �U l V 2y / / *7^ / / " X T £?^A{ r r ' ■ -r f � https://projectdaps.org/files/original/127ed2f8850c25d111c5ca025b641985.jpg 6fc417bdb1458960b93a381030cf6727 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Dataset Data encoded in a defined structure. Examples include lists, tables, and databases. A dataset may be useful for direct machine processing. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Public Education for Negroes in Arlington County, Virginia, from 1870 to 1950, Dissertation by Ophelia Braden Taylor, June 1951 Description An account of the resource Dissertation written by Ophelia Braden Taylor for a Master of Arts in the Department of Edcuation at Howard University, June 1951. Dissertation is broken down into the following sections: Introduction; The Awakening Period, 1870-1899; The Period of Recovery, 1900-1916; The Early Kemp Era, 1917-1936; The Later Kemp Era, 1937-1950; Evaluation of the Study; Bibliography; Appendices. 131 Pages Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource pdf Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Ophelia Braden Taylor Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1870s to 1940s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_4_5_1 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/3f6a8eaf1a157cea9059d557de1ba389.jpg 833a0f2170db9cc90cf127e37f9768cb Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource George Melvin Richardson Description An account of the resource Portrait of George Melvin Richardson, Secondary School Administrator, Arlington, Va. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Unknown Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0001 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/b41431ac360968a6eaefb5298b53db62.jpg 8c1e51704f533a70144a012afdfbe58d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hoffman-Boston School Description An account of the resource Photo of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0002 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/a15dc322f68adf650bfbee8ad723ca48.jpg 2f1f12367ea7ad7f17452b46fca7c309 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hoffman-Boston - new elementary, 1951 Description An account of the resource Exterior photo of the Hoffman-Boston Elementary School circa 1951. George Melvin Richardson and another man stand by the flagpole in front of the school. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0003 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/54a9e2b114ad5fd3d79e40564c91f14b.jpg cea27474b94cb07a3c9c83b1d843fbf1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Group picture Description An account of the resource Group photo of African American men in an outdoor setting. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant Unknown Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0004 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/0a1f0c9ddf2fd42bb4dbe34b8ce52a0b.jpg 370ec7a281476796c29058c59519a6a7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mr. Richardson with staff and students, c.1964 Description An account of the resource George Melvin Richardson poses for a group picture with the faculty, staff, and students of Hoffman-Boston in front of the school. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0005 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/6cc8760e14853b82ca1fc32fd358f5d0.jpg 319409f9c81c9f137b737027eb2ea3b6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Assistant Principal, Counselor, Mr. Richardson Description An account of the resource George Melvin Richardson sits at his desk with two of his staff members in his office at Hoffman-Boston. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0007 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/4284b827d010e3de3fd13b3eb434b1a3.jpg af1f180b1f307dcaca477841b3de7cf1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mr. Richardson, staff meeting Description An account of the resource George Melvin Richardson leads a staff meeting at Hoffman-Boston. Staff sit at student desks in a semi-circle. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0008 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/b54ac83a565c6108b9300ff29cd7a42d.jpg 87f880712995b1a69ec150a2262a11b0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Hoffman-Boston Student, Science Demonstration Description An account of the resource Student science demonstration at the segregated Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0009 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/d073e0da13d3333d5ab6994954b38981.jpg bc59c45a04022847f95b537c820a17d6 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nurse Description An account of the resource A student visits the nurse's office at Hoffman-Boston for what appears to be a dental procedure. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0010 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/af5b46e9589c2eea18b9bce455453aa3.jpg b106eaaaa16e8ee94574333dac5d1e9e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Nurse Description An account of the resource Two adult African American women sit at a small desk. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0011 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/ebb259c9c6474f65e7a865455cac0717.jpg 32ea271fbab273da0579f91f50404ea5 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Mr. Richardson (middle left) with Evaluation Committee Description An account of the resource George Melvin Richardson, at center, leads a tour of Hoffman-Boston for committee members at right. They stand in the wood shop, as a student demonstrates woodworking as a teacher looks on, right. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0012 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/203d3fd2342e8f4e4270612d9a09b5e5.jpg 55aa8e1c87377b3d79b03fd9b3d9b452 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Microscope Description An account of the resource Hoffman-Boston student looks into a microscope. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0013 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/32931f522be3277603275f436d509ca8.jpg 04c57270170ce208e3820d8a820e67d7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Biology Description An account of the resource Students and teacher perform dissection in Hoffman-Boston Biology lab. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0014 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/378f9ec821183775c7fd25cf820a77a8.jpg c8ac94cb59aacc44fcd1e94c1657afa7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Science class Description An account of the resource Science demonstration involving a fan at Hoffman-Boston. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0015 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/8890c0023c99490482ca0d92092d476e.jpg 18955e7bbce6945ff680f94b36066496 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Health class Description An account of the resource Anatomy lesson at Hoffman-Boston. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0016 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/aa145eb6a3a81bb83cfc4f4a9c967db8.jpg 81953507d27b78dd881e9173c20f6d86 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Art student Description An account of the resource Student works on a clay figure at Hoffman-Boston. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0017 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/481aa6dc1492510ef7ab540599b395b0.jpg 4051cd0770b0f79118f502584012e4d0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Art class Description An account of the resource Students paint in an art class at Hoffman-Boston. In foreground, a teacher looks at an art book with one student. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0018 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/2be09b97f1286fac073643a05f668776.jpg fe81ba61c4077a112b66f9ae839002d7 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Art class Description An account of the resource Three students at easles work on painted still lifes in Hoffman-Boston art room. Two other students work on their projects. Some student paitings are visible on the walls. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0019 https://projectdaps.org/files/original/205ede78d1dfdb6cd6d1094cf778d4c7.jpg 34b183c373eecb62db6012bb2001d537 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Description An account of the resource Papers donated by George Melvin Richardson, former principal of Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School. Still Image A static visual representation. Examples include paintings, drawings, graphic designs, plans and maps. Recommended best practice is to assign the type Text to images of textual materials. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Science Description An account of the resource Science demonstration involving some sort of motor at Hoffman-Boston. Format The file format, physical medium, or dimensions of the resource Black and white photograph Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived RG 307, The George Melvin Richardson Collection Coverage The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant 1950s Rights Information about rights held in and over the resource This image is subject to copyright. Unauthorized use of the images in the Local History Photograph Collections of the Arlington Community Archives is prohibited. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 307_0020